Defining the Semantics of Verbal Modifiers 
in the Domain of Cooking Tasks 
Robin F. Karlin 
Department of Computer and Information Science 
University of Pennsylvania 
Philadelphia, PA 19104-6389 
Abstract 
SEAFACT (Semantic Analysis For the Animation of 
Cooking Tasks) is a natural language interface to a 
computer-generated animation system operating in 
the domain of cooking tasks. SEAFACT allows the 
user to specify cooking tasks "using a small subset of 
English. The system analyzes English input and pro- 
duces a representation of the task which can drive 
motion synthesis procedures. Tl~is paper describes 
the semantic analysis of verbal modifiers on which 
the SEAFACT implementation is based. 
Introduction 
SEAFACT is a natural language interface to 
a computer-generated animation system (Karlin, 
1988). SEAFACT operates in the domain of cooking 
tasks. The domain is limited to a mini-world con- 
sisting of a small set of verbs chosen because they 
involve rather complex arm movements which will be 
interesting to animate. SEAFACT allows the user to 
specify tasks in this domain, using a small subset of 
English. The system then analyzes the English input 
and produces a representation of the task. An intelli- 
gent simulation system (Fishwick, 1985,1987), which 
is currently being extended, will provide the final link 
between the SEAFACT representation and lower level 
motion synthesis procedures. The representation con- 
sists of a decomposition of verbs into primitive actions 
which are semantically interpretable by the motion 
synthesis procedures. It also includes default infor- 
mation for all knowledge which is not made explicit 
in the input, but must be explicit in the animated 
output. The representation contains sufficient non- 
geometric information needed to schedule task start 
and end times, describe concurrent actions, and pro- 
vide reach, grasp, and motion goals. 
An empirical, linguistic study of recipes was con- 
ducted with the goals of delimiting the scope of the 
cooking domain, identifying important verbal mod- 
ifiers, and defining the semantics of those modifiers. 
This paper is concerned primarily with describing the 
results of this study and the implementation of some 
of the modifiers. 
A Linguistic Analysis of Verbal 
Modifiers 
An empirical study of approximately II0 sentences 
from nine cookbooks was carried out. Verbal mod- 
ifiers were found to play an essential role in the ex- 
pressive power of these sentences. Therefore, in order 
to develop a representation for the verbal modifiers, 
the study describes and categorizes their occurences 
and provides a semantic analysis of each of the cate- 
gories. Each of the categories is considered a seman- 
tic role in the representation of the natural language 
input. Temporal adverbials were found to be partic- 
ularly prevalent in recipes because they are needed 
to specify temporal information about actions which 
is not inherent in the meaning of verbs and their ob- 
jects. This paper discusses two categories of temporal 
modifiers: duration and repetitions as well as speed 
modifiers. Other categories of modifiers which were 
analyzed include quantity of the object, end result, 
instrument, and force. 
Passonnean (1986) and Waltz (1981,1982) are con- 
cerned with developing semantic representations ad- 
equate for representing adverbial modification. Pas- 
sonneau's work shows that to account for tense and 
grammatical aspect requires a much more complex 
representation of the temporal components of lan- 
guage than the one used in SEAFACT. However, she 
does not look at as many categories of temporal ad- 
verhials, nor does she propose ~specific representa- 
tion for them. Waltz (1982) suggests that adverbs 
will be represented by the scales in his event shape 
diagrams. For example, time adverbials will be tel>- 
61 
resented by the time scale and quantity adverbials 
by the scale for quantity of the verbal objects. This 
is similar to the approach taken in SEAFACT. In 
SEAFACT scales are replaced by default amounts for 
the category in question, for example the duration of 
a primitive action. 
Aspectual Category of an Event 
The aspectual category of an event is relevant because 
it affects which types of modifiers (e.g., repetitions, 
duration) can co-occur with the event. The analy- 
sis of aspect given in Moens (1987) (see also (Moens, 
1988)) is adopted here. Moens and Steedman iden- 
tify temporal/aspectual types following Vendler, but 
introduce new terminology. They apply these types 
to entire sentences, analyzed in their global context. 
Moens and Steedman's events are classified as culmi- 
nated processes, culminations, points, or processes. 
The majority of events in the cooking domain are 
calmina~ed procesaes. A culminated process is 
a state of affairs that also extends in time 
but that does have a particular culmination 
associated with it at which a change of state 
takes place. (Moens, 1987, p. 1) 
Each process in cooking must have a culmination be- 
cause any cooking task involves a finite sequence of 
steps, whose goal is to bring about a state change. An 
important point about verbal modifiers in the cook- 
ing domain, revealed in this study, is that many of 
them are concerned with characterizing the culmina- 
tion points of processes. In many cases a verb and 
object alone do not specify a clear culmination point. 
For example, the command beat the crpam does 
not contain information about the desired culmina- 
tion of the process, that is, when to stop the beating. 
Some sort of verbal modifier such as for 10 minutes 
or just until it forms peaks is necessary to specify 
the culmination of the process. 
Another aspectual type is a culmination. A culmi- 
nation is 
an event which the speaker views as accom- 
panied by a transition to a new state of the 
world. This new state we will refer to as the 
"consequent state" of the event. (Moens, 
1987, p. 1) 
Culminations, such as cover the pot, are not ex- 
tended in time as are processes and culminated pro- 
CesseS. 
In addition to the sentential aspect discussed 
above, the SEAFACT implementation identifies the 
lexical aspect of the verb. The lexical aspect refers 
to the aspectual category which can be ascribed to 
a verb considered outside of an utterance. For ex- 
ample, the lexical aspect of the verb stir is a process. 
However, the sentential aspect of the sentence s~ir the 
soap for S minates is a culminated process. The im- 
plementation checks that the sentential aspect of each 
input sentence containing a process verb is a culmi- 
nated process. That is, there must be some verbal 
modifier which coerces the process into a culminated 
process. If this is not the case, as in the sentence 
stir the soap, then the input is rejected since it would 
specify an animation without an ending time. The 
lexical aspect is also used in the analysis of speed 
modifiers, as discussed below. 
The Number of Repetitions of the Ac- 
tion 
Any expreesion which includes an endpoint, and 
therefore belongs to one Of the aspectual cla-qses of 
points, culminations, or culminated processes can be 
described as having a number of discrete repetitions. 
When a culminated process is described as having a 
number of repetitions, it is the entire process which is 
repeated. Process type events cannot have a number 
of repetitions associated with them since they do not 
include the notion of an end point. The number of 
repetitions of the event can be specified as a cardinal 
number, as a frequency, or indirectly as a result of 
the object of the verb being plural, having multiple 
parts, or being a r~ term. 
Cardln~! Count Adverbials 
Cardinal count adverbials (Mourelatos, 1981, p. 205) 
specify an exact number of repetitions of the event. 
(1) baste tw/ce during the cooking period 
(Rombauer, 1931, p. 350) 
Notice that in the case of certain verbs or sentential 
contexts it is not possible to specify a number of repe- 
titions for a culminated process. This is the case when 
the culmination involves a state change to the object 
which makes a repetition of the action impossible or 
meaningless. Consider the example, *Freeze twice. 
Freeze is a culminated process and once the culmi- 
nation has taken place the new state of the substance 
makes a repetition of the process redundant. Talmy 
(1985) proposes a classification scheme of aspectual 
types of verb roots which formalizes this distinction. 
He would classify f~eeze as a one-way non-resettable 
verb and baste as a one-way reseflable eerb (Talmy, 
1985, p. 77) He suggests that these types can be dis- 
tinguished by their ability to appear with iterative 
62 
expressions. This distinction can also be made by 
means of world knowledge about the verbs in ques- 
tion. 
Frequency Adverbials 
Frequency adverbials (Mourelatos, 1981, p. 205) de- 
scribe the number of repetitions of an action using a 
continuous scale with gradable terms (Croft, 1984, p. 
26) such as frequently, occasionally, and seldom. 
(2) Bring to a boil, reduce the heat, and sim- 
mer 20 minutes, stirring occasionally, until 
very thick. (Poses, 1985, p. 188) 
The meaning of frequency adverbials is best captured 
by stating the length of the intervals between repe- 
titions of the action. For example, the meaning of 
occasionally is that the number of minutes between 
incidents of stirring is large. An additional complica- 
tion is that frequency adverbials must be interpreted 
relative to the total length of time during which the 
event may be repeated. If the total time period is 
longer, the intervals must be proportionately longer. 
Like other gradable terms, such as tall and short, 
frequency adverbials are interpreted relative to their 
global context, in this case the cooking domain. Val- 
ues must be determined for each of the gradable 
terms, based on knowledge of typical values in the do- 
main. In the SEAFACT implementation these values 
consist of cardinal numbers which specify the length 
of an interval between repetitions of the action, ex- 
pressed as a percentage of the total time period. 
The following calculations are made when a fre- 
quency adverbial is present in a sentence. The length 
of a single interval between incidents of the action 
is calculated by using a percentage value associated 
with the frequency adverbial, such that IntervalTime 
- Percentage X TotalTime. The number of inter- 
vals present during the total time period is calculated 
by dividing the total time period by the sum of the 
length of one incident of the action and the length of 
a single interval. 
A simplifying assumption is made here that the in- 
tervals between repetitions are equal. Occasionally 
might then mean intervals which are 25 per cent of 
the total time period, and frequently might mean in- 
tervals which are 5 per cent of the total time period. 
This algorithm seems to coincide with the intuitive 
judgment that it is not normal to say stir occasion- 
ally during a very short time period such as 30 sec- 
onds. In such a case, the length of an individual stir- 
ring event might be longer than the total time. That 
is, for the domain in question there is some minimum 
interval between stirring events which is necessary for 
the term occasionally to be appropriate. 
Plural Objects 
The use of plural objects or mass terms with a verb 
may or may not indicate that the action is to he re- 
peated. The verb may indicate a single action which 
is performed on multiple objects simultaneously, or it 
may indicate an action which is repeated for each of a 
number of objects. This distinction does not always 
coincide with a mental conception of the objects as a 
mass or as individuak. Rather, it depends on physical 
attributes of the objects such as size and consistency. 
(3) chop the nuts 
In (3), world knowledge tells us that since nuts are 
small and relatively soft they can be chopped together 
in a group, perhaps using a cleaver. 
(4) chop the tomatoes with a Imlfe 
Here, world knowledge tells us that (4) usually re. 
quires a separate chopping event for each tomato, 
since tomatoes are large compared to knives and have 
skins which are not easily pierced. Notice that this is 
a case of repetition of a culminated process. Verbal 
modifiers may also be used to make explicit whether 
an action is to be performed separately on each object 
in a group or once on a group of objects together. 
(5) beat in the eggs one at a ~ime (Gourmet, 1986, 
p. 12) 
(fl) beat in 5 eggs until smooth 
In (5), the phrase one at a time makes explicit that 
there is to be a separate beating process for each egg. 
In (6), a sentence without a verbal modifier, the cul- 
rnlnated process beat in is performed once on the 
objects indicated. 
The Duration of an Action 
Any expression whose aspectual type is a process 
or culminated process can co-occur with a duration 
modifier. The duration of a culminated process refers 
to the amount of time it continues before the culmi- 
nation of the process. Duration can be specified as 
a cardinal number or a gradable term, correspond- 
ing to the categories used for number of repetitions. 
Duration can also be specified as co-extensive with 
the duration of another event, in terms of the change 
which signals the culmination, and as a disjunction 
of an explicit duration and a state change. 
Explicit Duration in Time Units 
Verbal modifiers may specify an explicit duration by 
giving a length of time. This can be less exact when 
a range of time or a minimum is specified. 
63 
(7) stir for I minute; set aside. (Morash, 1982, p. 
132) 
Duration Given by Gradable Terms 
The duration of an action can be specified by gradable 
terms on a continuous scale. 
(8) blend very briefly (Robertson, 1976, p. 316) 
Duration Co-extensive with the Duration of 
Another Action 
In the cooking domain it is often necessary to do sev- 
eral actions simultaneously. In such cases it is most 
natural to express the duration of one of the activities 
in terms of the duration of the other one. 
(9) Continue to cook while gent/y folding in the 
cheeses with a spatula. (Poses, 1985, p. 186) 
(10) Reduce the heat to medium and fry the 
millet, stirring, for 5 minutes or until it is 
light golden. (Sahni, 1985, p. 283) 
Duration Characterized by a State Change 
All processes in the cooking domain must have cul- 
minations since cooking consists of a finite number of 
steps executed with limited resources. The language 
used to describe these processes can convey their cul- 
minations in different ways. In some cases a verb may 
contain inherent information about the endpoint of 
the action which it describes. In other cases verbal 
modifiers characterize the endpoint. 
(11) Chop the onion. 
Example (11) specifies a culminated process whose 
endpoint is defined by the state of the onion. While 
the desired final state of the onion could be speci- 
fied more exactly by some adverb such as finely or 
coarsely, in the absence of such a modifier an end- 
point can be established based on lexical knowledge 
about the state of an object which has been chopped. 
In many cases, however, the meaning of the process 
verb does not include information on the endpoint 
of the process, or the domain requires more specific 
information than that conveyed by the verb alone. 
For example, in many contexts, the verb beat does 
not supply the duration or the particular end result 
of the beating which would determine the duration. 
This is because different amounts of beating bring 
about different final states for many substances. 
Therefore, the cooking domain includes many ex- 
amples of duration of an action characterized by the 
specification of a state change in the object being 
acted on. There must be some perceptual test which 
verifies when a state change has occurred. For visual 
changes the test consists of looking at the substance 
in question. A preparatory action is required only if 
the substance is not immediately visible, for example, 
if it is in the oven or in a closed pot. Changes which 
must be perceived by other senses, usually require 
additional actions. For example, to perform a tactile 
test one must touch the substance either directly or 
with some instrument. 
The following is an example of a state change which 
can be perceived visually without an active test. 
(12) Saute over high heat until moisture is evapo- 
rated (Morash, 1982, p. 131) 
Disjunctions of Explicit Durations and State 
Changes 
(13) steam ~ minutes or until mussels open (Poses, 
1985, p. 83) 
The meaning of sentences in this category is not 
the same as that of logical disjunction. Example (13) 
does not give the cook a choice between steaming for 2 
minutes or until the mussels open. The actual mean- 
ing of these disjunctions is that the state change is to 
be used to determine the duration of the action. The 
explicit duration provides information on the usual 
amount of time that is needed for the state change to 
take place. 
Ball (1985) discusses problems that arise in the se- 
mantic interpretation of what she calls metalinguistic 
or non-truth functional disjunction. "The first clause 
is asserted, and the right disjunct provides an alter~ 
nate, more accessible description of the referent of 
the left disjunct. ~ (Ball, 1985, p. 3) The truth of 
these sentences depends on the truth of the first dis- 
junct. Ball claims that if the first disjunct is true 
and the second is not, then the sentence is still true 
although ~our impression will be that something has 
gone wrong, n (Ball, 1985, p. 3) 
The disjunctions of explicit durations and state 
changes seem to be another type of metalinguistic 
disjunction. They are very similar to the examples 
given by Ball except that it is the right disjunct which 
determines the truth of the sentence and the left dis- 
junct which provides an alternate description. Fur- 
thermore, this alternate does not have to be strictly 
synonymous with the right disjunct. The semantics 
of these disjunctions includes the notion that the left 
disjunct is only an approximation. 
64 
The Speed 
The following verbal modifiers are gradable terms 
which characterize the speed of the action. 
(14) quickly tilt and turn the dish (Heatter, 1965, 
p. 400) 
(15) rery gradually pour (Heatter, 1965, p. 393) 
The SEAFACT implementation contain- values for 
these terms based on knowledge of typical values in 
the domain. These values are the amount by which 
the default duration of an action should be multiplied 
to arrive at the new duration specified by the speed 
term. 
The lexical aspect of the verb is used to decide 
whether all or only a portion of the primitive ac- 
tions which comprise the verbal action are affected 
by the speed factor. If the verb is a process then only 
a portion of the primitive actions are affected. For 
example, stir the soup quickly for 5 minutes means 
to make the repeated rotations of the instrument 
quickly, probably in order to prevent the soup from 
burning. It does not imply that the entire motion as- 
sociated with stirring, which includes picking up the 
instrument and putting it in the soup and later re- 
moving it from the soup, must be done quickly. The 
latter interpretation would mean that the speedterm 
was meant to modify the time which the entire action 
takes to complete. However, processes in this domain 
must be specified with a duration and so the duration 
of the entire action is already fixed. 
In contrast, if the lexical aspect of the verb is a cul- 
mination or culminated process then the duration of 
the entire action is meant to be modified by the speed 
term. An example of this is corer the pot quickly. 
The SEAFACT Implementation 
There are several stages in the translation from En- 
glish input to the final representation required by the 
animation simulator. The first stage includes pars- 
ing and the production of an intermediate semantic 
analysis of the input. This is accomplished by BUP, 
A Bottom Up Parser (Finin, 1984). BUP accepts an 
extended phrase structure grammar. The rules con- 
sist of the intermediate semantic representation and 
tests for rule application. The latter include selec- 
tional restrictions which access information stored in 
several knowledge bases. The intermediate seman- 
tic representation consists of roles and their values, 
which are taken from the input sentence. 
SEAFACT includes a number of knowledge bases 
which are implemented using DC-RL, a frame-based 
knowledge representation language (Cebula, 1986). 
Two of these knowledge bases, the Object KB and 
the Linguistic Term KB, are used by the parser to 
enforce selectional restrictions attached to the gram- 
matical rules. 
The Object KB contains world knowledge about 
the objects in the domain. It contains a representa- 
tion of each object which can be referred to in the 
natural language input. These objects are classified 
according to a very general conceptual structure. For 
example, all edible items are classified as food, cook- 
ing tools are classified as instruments, and cooking 
vessels are classified as containers. This information 
is used to enforce selectional restrictions in the rules 
for prepositional phrases. The selectional restrictions 
check the category to which the prepositional ob- 
ject belongs. For example, if the prepositional object 
is an instrument then the rule which applies builds 
an intermediate semantic representation of the form 
(INSTRUMENT prepositional-objec O. If the prepo- 
sitional object denotes a time, and the preposition is 
for, then the rule which applies builds an intermedi- 
ate semantic representation of the form (DURATION 
(EXPLICIT prepositional-object)). 
The Ling~stic Term KB contain, a classification 
of adverbial modifiers which is used to enforce selec- 
tional restrictions on the rules for adverbial phrases. 
For example, if an adverb is classified as a frequency 
~erm then the rule which applies builds an interme- 
diate semantic representation of the form (REPETI- 
TIONS (FREQUENCY fi~quency-tcrm)): 
The second stage in the processing is to create rep- 
resentations for the verb and the event. The event 
representation has roles for each of the temporal ver- 
bal modifiers. Each verb has its own representation 
containing roles for each of the verbal modifiers which 
can occur with that verb. The verb representations 
contain default values for any roles which are essen- 
tial (Palmer, 1985). Essential roles are those which 
must be filled but not necessarily from the input sen- 
tence. For example, the representation for the verb 
stir includes the essential role instrument with a 
default value of spoon. After the event and verb 
representations are created, the role values in those 
representations are filled in from the roles in the in- 
termediate semantic representation. Default values 
are used for any roles which were not present in the 
input sentence. 
Each verb in the input is represented by a number 
of primitive actions which are interpretable by the 
animation software. In the second stage, the system 
also creates a representation of the final output which 
includes values for the starting time and duration of 
each of these actions. 
65 
The third stage in the processing is accomplished 
by the Modifier Analysis Component (MAC). This 
function performs the additional processing required 
by some of the temporal verbal modifiers such as 
frequency terms. This processing consists of mod- 
ifying the output to reflect the temporal modifiers. 
This may mean changing the duration of actions (for 
speed and duration modifiers), modifying the number 
of times the output is repeated (for repetition modi- 
fiers), or interspersing intervals of no action with the 
intervals of action (for frequency modifiers). 
The final output is created by filling in the primi- 
tive action representations with values from the verb 
and event representations. 
Consider how SEAFACT processes two example 
sentences. In the first example, Stir the batter with a 
wisk -for ~ minutes, the intermediate semantic repre- 
sentation includes a substancel role filled by batter, 
an instrument role filled by w/sk, and a duration 
role filled by ~ minutes. These values are inserted in 
the verb and event representations for the sentence. 
The MAC modifies the duration of the primitive ac- 
tions which make up stir so that the duration of the 
total stirring event is 2 minutes. 
The second example, Stir the soup occasionally for 
2 minutes is more complicated because of the fre- 
quency adverbial. The intermediate semantic repre- 
sentation includes s substance1 role filled by soup, a 
duration role filled by ~ minutes, and a repetitions 
role filled by occasionally. These values are inserted 
in the verb and event representations. The default 
value for the instrument role, spoon, is used. The 
MAC finds the frequency adverbial and checks for the 
presence of a duration. However, if no duration were 
specified, then the sentence would be rejected because 
the animation requires that each action be finite. The 
duration specifies the total time interval during which 
the frequency adverbial applies. The algorithm de- 
scribed above is used to compute the length of the 
intervals between stirring events. The length of a 
single stirring event is a default which is part of the 
representation of the primitive actions. The number 
of stirring events which fit in the total time period 
is calculated. The output consists of repetitions of 
pairs of the following type: the primitives for a stir- 
ring event and a specification for no action during the 
interval between stirring events. A planner could be 
used to insert some other action into the intervals of 
no action. 
Conclusion 
This analysis has identified categories of verbal mod- 
ifiers which are found frequently in recipes. While 
all of these categories are found in other domains as 
well, some of them are particularly prevalent in this 
domain because the purpose of recipes is to describe 
procedures. The temporal category which charac- 
terizes the duration of an action by a state change 
is particularly common in recipes for two reasons. 
First, the physical process of cooking always involves 
state changes to objects and second, the meaning of 
many verbs used to describe cooking processes does 
not include information about the state change which 
should trigger the culmination of the process. There- 
fore, verbal modifiers are necessary to make the de- 
sired state changes explicit. 
This analysis has also shown a relationship between 
aspectual categories of events and the modifiers which 
may co-occur with them. For example, the categories 
of modifiers which express the number of repetitions 
of an action can only modify expressions which in- 
clude an endpoint, that is, points, culminations, or 
culminated processes. 
The analysis of the verbal modifier categories re- 
veals many areas where common sense knowledge or 
physical knowledge about the world is required to rep- 
resent the semantics of these categories. For example, 
when an action is performed on a plural object, phys- 
ical knowledge about the size and consistency of the 
objects and about the action itself is necessary to ten 
us whether it must be repeated for each of the objects 
separately or performed on all the objects in a group. 
SEAFACT is a successful implementation of a nat- 
ural language interface to a computer-generated an- 
imation system, operating in the domain of cooking 
tasks. The primitive actions along with the timing 
information in the SEAFACT output are used to rep- 
resent the range of verbal modifiers discussed in this 
paper. The output will be interpreted by an interface 
to the lower level motion synthesis procedures. This 
interface (Badler, 1988, 1987a, 1987b) can interpret 
each type of information in the SEAFACT output: 
motion changes (e.g. rotation), motion goals, con- 
stralnts in position and orientation, and temporals. 
Acknowledgements 
I would like to thank Dr. Bonnie Webber, Dr. Nor- 
man Badler, Dr. Mark Steedman, and Dr. Rebecca 
Passonneau for providing me with guidance and many 
valuable ideas. This research is partial\]y supported 
by Lockheed Engineering and Management Services, 
66 
NASA Grant NAG-2-4026, NSF CER Grant MCS- 
82-19196, NSF Grant IST-86-12984, and ARO Grant 
DAAG29-84-K-0061 including participation by the 
U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratory. 
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