Proceedings of the Third ACL-SIGSEM Workshop on Prepositions, pages 89–94,
Trento, Italy, April 2006. c©2006 Association for Computational Linguistics
Handling of Prepositions in English to Bengali  
Machine Translation 
 
Sudip Kumar Naskar 
Dept. of Comp. Sc. & Engg., 
Jadavpur University, 
Kolkata, India 
sudip_naskar@hotmail.com 
Sivaji Bandyopadhyay 
Dept. of Comp. Sc. & Engg.,  
Jadavpur University, 
Kolkata, India 
sivaji_cse_ju@yahoo.com 
 
 
 
Abstract 
The present study focuses on the lexical 
meanings of prepositions rather than on 
the thematic meanings because it is in-
tended for use in an English-Bengali ma-
chine translation (MT) system, where the 
meaning of a lexical unit must be pre-
served in the target language, even 
though it may take a different syntactic 
form in the source and target languages. 
Bengali is the fifth language in the world 
in terms of the number of native speakers 
and is an important language in India. 
There is no concept of preposition in 
Bengali. English prepositions are trans-
lated to Bengali by attaching appropriate 
inflections to the head noun of the prepo-
sitional phrase (PP), i.e., the object of the 
preposition. The choice of the inflection 
depends on the spelling pattern of the 
translated Bengali head noun. Further 
postpositional words may also appear in 
the Bengali translation for some preposi-
tions. The choice of the appropriate post-
positional word depends on the WordNet 
synset information of the head noun. 
Idiomatic or metaphoric PPs are trans-
lated into Bengali by looking into a bi-
lingual example base. The analysis pre-
sented here is general and applicable for 
translation from English to many other 
Indo-Aryan languages that handle prepo-
sitions using inflections and postposi-
tions. 
1 Introduction 
Prepositions have been studied from a variety of 
perspectives. Both linguistic and computational 
(monolingual and cross-lingual) aspects of 
prepositions have been contemplated by several 
researchers. Jackendoff (1977), Emonds (1985), 
Rauh (1993) and Pullum and Huddleston (2002) 
have investigated the syntactic characteristics of 
preposition. Cognitive theorists have examined 
the polysemous nature of prepositions and ex-
plored the conceptual relationships of the 
polysemy, proposing the graphical mental im-
ages (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Brugman, 1981, 
1988; Herskovits, 1986; Langacker, 1987; Tyler 
and Evans, 2003). Fauconnier (1994) and Visetti 
and Cadiot (2002) have canvassed the pragmatic 
aspects of prepositions. A practical study of the 
usage of prepositions was carried out for the pur-
pose of teaching English as a second language 
(Wahlen, 1995; Lindstromberg, 1997; Yates, 
1999). The deictic properties of spatial preposi-
tions have been studied by Hill (1982), while the 
geographical information provided by them was 
an interest of computational research (Xu and 
Badler, 2000; Tezuka et al., 2001). 
In the fields of natural language processing, 
the problem of PP attachment has been a topic 
for research for quite a long time, and in recent 
years, the problem was explored with a neural 
network-based approach (Sopena et al., 1998) 
and with a syntax-based trainable approach (Yeh 
and Vilain, 1998). Although past research has 
revealed various aspects of prepositions, there is 
not much semantic research of prepositions 
available for computational use, which requires a 
vigorous formalization of representing the se-
mantics. A recent semantic study of prepositions 
for computational use is found in (Voss, 2002), 
with a focus on spatial prepositions. Spatial 
prepositions are divided into three categories ac-
cording to which one of the two thematic mean-
ings between place and path they acquire when 
they are in argument, adjunct and non-
subcategorized positions of particular types of 
89
verbs. The semantics of spatial prepositions dealt 
with in (Voss, 2002) is not lexical but thematic. 
There are some prepositions (e.g., over, with), 
which have many senses as preposition. By mak-
ing use of the semantic features of the Comple-
ments (reference object) and Heads (verb, verb 
phrase, noun or noun phrase governing a preposi-
tion or a PP), the meaning of the polysemous 
prepositions can be computationally disambigu-
ated. The different meanings of over call for dif-
ferent semantic features in its heads and com-
plements [Alam, 04]. 
Prepositional systems across languages vary to 
a considerably degree, and this cross-linguistic 
diversity increases as we move from core, physi-
cal senses of prepositions into the metaphoric 
extensions of prepositional meaning  (metaphor 
or rather, idiomaticity is one of the main realms 
of usage with prepositions) (Brala, 2000). 
The present study focuses on the lexical mean-
ings of prepositions rather than on the thematic 
meanings because it is intended for use in an 
English-Bengali machine translation (MT) sys-
tem, where the meaning of a sentence, a phrase 
or a lexical entry of the source language must be 
preserved in the target language, even though it 
may take a different syntactic form in the source 
and target languages. Bengali is the fifth lan-
guage in the world in terms of the number of na-
tive speakers and is an important language in 
India. It is the official language of neighboring 
Bangladesh. There is no concept of preposition 
in Bengali. English prepositions are translated to 
Bengali by attaching appropriate inflections to 
the head noun of the PP, i.e., the object of the 
preposition. The choice of the inflection depends 
on the spelling pattern of the translated Bengali 
head noun. Further postpositional words may 
also appear in the Bengali translation for some 
prepositions. The choice of the appropriate post-
positional word depends on the WordNet (Fell-
baum, 1998) synset information of the head 
noun. Idiomatic or metaphoric PPs are translated 
into Bengali by looking into a bilingual example 
base. 
A brief overview of the English-Bengali MT 
System is presented in Section 2. Different types 
of English prepositions and their identification in 
the MT system are described in Section 3. Inflec-
tions and postpositions in Bengali are outlined in 
Section 4. Translation of English prepositions to 
inflections and postpositions in Bengali are de-
tailed in Section 5. The conclusion is drawn in 
Section 6.  
2 A Brief Overview of the English-
Bengali MT System 
The handling of English prepositions during 
translation to Bengali has been studied with re-
spect to an English-Bengali MT system (Naskar 
and Bandyopadhyay, 2005) being developed. In 
order to translate from English to Bengali, the 
first thing we do is lexical analysis of the English 
sentence using the WordNet, to gather the lexical 
features of the morphemes. During morphologi-
cal analysis, the root words / terms (including 
idioms and named entities), along with associ-
ated grammatical information and semantic cate-
gories are extracted. A shallow parser identifies 
the constituent phrases of the source language 
sentence and tags them to encode all relevant 
information that might be needed to translate 
these phrases and perhaps resolve ambiguities in 
other phrases. Then these phrases are translated 
individually to the target language (Bengali) us-
ing Bengali synthesis rules. The noun phrases 
and PPs are translated using Example bases of 
syntactic transfer rules. Verb phrase translation 
scheme is rule based and uses Morphologi-
cal Paradigm Suffix Tables. Finally, those target 
language phrases are arranged using some 
heuristics, based on the word ordering rules of 
Bengali, to form the target language representa-
tion of the source language sentence.  
3 Prepositions in English  
A preposition is a word placed before a “noun” 
to show in what relation the noun stands with 
regard to the other noun and verb words in the 
same sentence. The noun that follows a preposi-
tion, i.e., the reference object is in the accusative 
case and is governed by the preposition. Preposi-
tions can also be defined as words that begin 
prepositional phrases (PP). A PP is a group of 
words containing a preposition, an object of the 
preposition, and any modifiers of the object. 
Syntactically, prepositions can be arranged 
into three classes – simple prepositions (e.g., at, 
by, for, from etc.), compound prepositions and 
phrase prepositions. A compound preposition is 
made up of a set of words which starts with and 
acts like a preposition (e.g., in spite of, in favor 
of, on behalf of etc.). A phrase preposition is a 
simple preposition preceded by a word from an-
other category, such as an adverb, adjective, or 
conjunction (e.g., instead of, prior to, because of, 
according to etc.). 
Frequently prepositions follow the verbs to-
gether forming phrasal verbs and remain sepa-
90
rate. A word that looks like a preposition but is 
actually part of a phrasal verb is often called a 
particle. E.g. “Four men held up the bank.” Here 
held up is a verb [“to rob”]. Therefore, up is not 
a preposition, and bank is not the object of a 
preposition. Instead, bank is a direct object of the 
verb held up. A particle may not always appear 
immediately after the verb with which it makes 
up a phrasal verb (e.g., Four men held the bank 
up.). 
An idiomatic (metaphoric) PP starts with a 
preposition, but its meaning cannot be ascer-
tained from the meaning of its components. Ex-
amples of idiomatic PPs are: at times, by hook or 
crook etc. 
All these syntactical characteristics are used to 
identify prepositions in the English-Bengali MT 
system. Moreover, the inventory of prepositions 
in English is a close set. So, identification of 
prepositions is not much of a problem in English. 
A simple list serves the purpose. The preposi-
tions, compound prepositions, phrase preposi-
tions and idiomatic PPs are identified during 
morphological analysis. Some of the phrasal 
verbs (when the phrasal verb appears as a whole) 
are identified during the morphological analysis 
phase and some during parsing (when the parti-
cle does not accompany the verb). 
However, there are some words that act as 
prepositions and fall into other POS categories as 
well. For example, the word before can be used 
as an adverb (e.g., I could not come before), 
preposition (e.g., He came before me) or a con-
junction (e.g., He came before I came). Simi-
larly, the word round can be used as an adjective 
(e.g., Rugby is not played with a round ball), 
noun (e.g., Rafter was knocked out of the tour-
nament in the third round), adverb (e.g., They 
have moved all the furniture round), preposition 
(e.g., The earth revolves round the sun) and verb 
(e.g., His eyes rounded with anger). But depend-
ing on the POS of the neighboring words/terms, 
the parser easily identifies the correct POS of the 
word in the particular context. 
A preposition is usually placed in front of (is 
“pre-positioned” before) its object, but some-
times however may follow it (e.g., What are you 
looking at?). The preposition is often placed at 
the end when the reference object is an interroga-
tive pronoun (e.g., Where are you coming 
from?) or a relative pronoun (e.g., My grandfa-
ther was a collector of coins, which we used to 
fight over). In such cases, the system finds out 
that the preposition is not a particle and is not 
followed by a noun either, so it must be a 
stranded preposition. It searches the pronoun 
(relative or interrogative) that appears at its left 
and relates the stranded preposition to the pro-
noun. Thus during translation, the following 
conversion takes place.  
(1) Where are you coming 
from?  � � From where are you 
coming? 
(2) My grandfather was a 
collector of coins, which we 
used to fight over.  � � My 
grandfather was a collector 
of coins, over which we used 
to fight. 
But if the pronoun is missing, then the system 
has to find out the elliptical pronoun first.  
(3) I am grateful to the man 
I have spoken to.  � I am 
grateful to the man [whom] I 
have spoken to.  � I am 
grateful to the man to 
[whom] I have spoken. 
Prepositions represent several relations with 
the nouns governed by them. Spatial and tempo-
ral prepositions (which indicate a place or time 
relation) have received a relatively in-depth 
study for a number of languages. The semantics 
of other types of prepositions describing manner, 
instrument, amount or accompaniment largely 
remain unexplored. In case of an MT system, 
when a preposition has different representations 
in the target language for different relations indi-
cated by it, identification of the relation is neces-
sary. The WordNet synset information of the 
head noun of the PP, i.e., the object of the prepo-
sition serves to identify the relation. 
4 Inflections and Postpositions in Ben-
gali 
In Bengali, there is no concept of preposition. 
English prepositions are handled in Bengali us-
ing inflections (vibhaktis) to the reference objects 
and/or post-positional words after them. Inflec-
tions get attached to the reference objects. An 
inflection has no existence of its own in the lan-
guage, and it does not have any meaning as well. 
There are only a few inflections in Bengali: Φ 
(null), -å#(-e), -Ì^ (-y), -åÌ^ (-ye), -åTö (-te), -
å#åTö (-ete), -åEõ (-ke), -åÌ[ý (-re), -å#åÌ[ý (-ere), 
-Ì[ý (-r) and -å#Ì[ý (-er) (an inflection is repre-
91
sented as a word with a leading ‘-’ in this paper). 
The placeholder indicated by a dashed circle 
represents a consonant or a conjunct. For exam-
ple, if -å# inflection is attached to the word 
[ýçLçÌ[ý (bazar [market]) the inflected word is 
[ýçLçãÌ[ý (bazar-e [market-to]). On the other hand, 
post-positional words are independent words. 
They have meanings of their own and are used 
independently like other words. A post-positional 
word is positioned after an inflected noun (the 
reference object). Some examples of the post-
positional words in (colloquial) Bengali are: ×VãÌ^ 
(diye [by]), åUãEõ (theke [from]), LXî (jonno 
[for]), Eõçä»K÷ (kachhe [near]), aç]ãX  (samne [in 
front of]) etc. 
5 Translating English prepositions to 
Bengali 
When an English PP is translated into Bengali, 
the following transformation takes place: (prepo-
sition) (reference object)  � � (reference object) 
[(inflection)] [(postpositional-word)]. The corre-
spondence between English prepositions and 
Bengali postpositions (inflections and post-
positional words) is not direct. As far as the se-
lection of the appropriate target language repre-
sentation of a preposition is concerned the refer-
ence object plays a major role in determining the 
correct preposition sense. Deciding whether the 
preposition is used in a spatial sense, as opposed 
to a temporal or other senses, is determined by 
the semantics of the head noun of the reference 
object. A noun phrase (NP) denoting a place 
gives rise to a spatial PP. Similarly, an object 
referring to a time entity produces a temporal 
expression. These relationships can be estab-
lished by looking at the WordNet synset informa-
tion of the head noun of the PP. 
5.1 Translating English prepositions using 
Inflections in Bengali 
The translation of the three English prepositions 
'in', 'on', and 'at' involves identifying the possible 
inflection to be attached to the head noun of the 
PP. No postpositional words are placed after the 
head noun for these prepositions. The three 
prepositions 'in', 'on', and 'at' (which are both 
spatial and temporal in nature) can be translated 
into the Bengali inflections '-å#' (-e), '-åTö’ (-te), 
-å#åTö (-ete) and 'Ì^'  (-y). Any of these 4 Bengali 
inflections can be placed after the reference ob-
ject for any of these 3 English spatial and tempo-
ral prepositions. The choice depends on the spell-
ing of the translated reference object. The rule is: 
if the last letter of the Bengali representation of 
the reference object is a consonant, ‘å#’ (-e) or -
å#åTö (-ete) is added to it (e.g., at/in market � 
[ýçLçãÌ[ý [bazar-e / bazar-ete]), else if the last let-
ter of the Bengali word is a matra (vowel modi-
fier) and if the matra is ‘#ç’  (-a), any of ‘åTö’    
(-te), or  'Ì^'  (-y) can be added to the Bengali ref-
erence word (e.g., in evening � aµùîçãTö / aµùîçÌ^ 
[sandhya-te / sandhya-y]), otherwise 'åTö’  (-te) is 
added to it (e.g., at home � [ýç×QÍöãTö [badi-te]). 
When translating the temporal expressions, if 
‘on’ is followed by a day (like Sunday, Monday 
etc.) or by a date in English, null inflection is 
added. 
To translate this type of PPs, we take the help 
of an example base, which contains bilingual 
translation examples. Here are some translation 
examples from the example base (TLR – target 
language representation of the reference object). 
(1) at / in (place)  � � 
(TLR) - Ì(å# / åÌ^ / åTö ) [ - ( e / 
ye / te )] 
(2) of (NP)  � � (TLR) - Ì( Ì[ý / 
å#Ì[ý / åÌ^Ì[ý ) [ - ( r / er / yer 
)] 
5.2 Translating English prepositions using 
Inflections and Postpositions in Bengali 
Most of the English prepositions are translated to 
Bengali as inflections and postpositions to the 
noun word representing the reference object. To 
translate this type of PPs, we take the help of an 
example base, which contains bilingual transla-
tion examples. Here are some translation exam-
ples from the example base (TLR – target lan-
guage representation of the reference object).  
(1) before (artifact)  � � 
(TLR) - Ì( Ì[ý / å#Ì[ý / åÌ^Ì[ý ) aç]ãX [ - 
( r / er / yer ) samne ] 
(2) before (!artifact)  � � 
(TLR) - Ì( Ì[ý / å#Ì[ý / åÌ^Ì[ý ) %çãG [ - 
( r / er / yer ) age ] 
92
(3) round (place / physical 
object)  � � (TLR) - Ì( Ì[ý / å#Ì[ý / 
åÌ^Ì[ý ) »JôçÌ[ý×VãEõ [ - ( r / er / yer 
) chardike ] 
(4) after (time)  � � (TLR) - 
Ì( Ì[ý / å#Ì[ý / åÌ^Ì[ý ) YãÌ[ý÷ [ - ( r / er 
/ yer ) pare ] 
(5) since (place / physical 
object / time)  � � (TLR) åUãEõ 
[theke] 
The choice of inflection depends on the spell-
ing of the translated reference object as said be-
fore. If the translated reference object ends with 
a vowel, åÌ^Ì[ý is added to it; else if ends with a 
consonant, å#Ì[ý (er)is added to it; otherwise (it 
ends with a matra) Ì[ý (r)is appended with it. The 
postpositional word is placed after the inflected 
reference object in Bengali. The choice of the 
postpositional word depends on the semantic 
information about the reference objects as col-
lected from the WordNet. In cases with one 
postpositional word, there is no need to know the 
semantic features of the reference objects. For 
example, ‘since’, as a preposition, is always 
translated as åUãEõ (theke) in Bengali, irrespec-
tive of the reference object. Again in some cases, 
this semantic information about the reference 
object does not suffice to translate the preposi-
tion properly.  
Consider the following examples that include 
the preposition before in two different senses. 
(1) He stood before the 
door.  � � åa VÌ[ýLçÌ[ý aç]ãX VñçQÍöç_ 
(se [he] darja-r samne [the 
door before] dandalo 
[stood]) 
(2) He reached before eve-
ning.   � � åa aµùîçÌ[ý %çãG 
åYgì»K÷ç_ (se [he] sondhya-r age 
[evening before] pouchhalo 
[reached]) 
(3) He reached before John. 
 � � åa LãXÌ[ý %çãG åYgì»K÷ç_ (se [he] 
jan-er age [John before] 
pouchhalo [reached]) 
From the WordNet, the system acquires the 
semantic information that ‘door’ is a hyponym of 
‘artifact’, whereas ‘evening’ and ‘me’ (which 
represents a person) are not. Thus ‘with’ is trans-
lated to Bengali as - Ì[ý aç]ãX in sentence (1), and 
takes the meaning - Ì( Ì[ý / å#Ì[ý / åÌ^Ì[ý ) %çãG in 
sentence (2) and (3). 
As there is no ambiguity in the meaning of 
compound prepositions and phrase prepositions, 
a simple listing of them (along with their Bengali 
representations) suffices to translate them. We 
have prepared a list that contains the phrase 
prepositions and compound prepositions in Eng-
lish along with their Bengali translations. 
 
English Bengali 
in spite of 
aãÃ¼øC [satteo] 
away from 
- Ì( Ì[ý / å#Ì[ý / åÌ^Ì[ý ) åUãEõ VÇãÌ[ý 
[ - ( r / er / yer ) theke dure ] 
owing to 
- Ì( Ì[ý / å#Ì[ý / åÌ^Ì[ý ) EõçÌ[ýãS 
[ - ( r / er / yer ) karane ] 
apart from 
K÷çQÍöçC [ chhadao ] 
Instead of 
- ( Ì[ý / å#Ì[ý / åÌ^Ì[ý ) Y×Ì[ý[ýãTöÛ 
[ - ( r / er / yer ) paribarte ] 
along with 
- ( Ì[ý / å#Ì[ý / åÌ^Ì[ý ) açãU 
[ - ( r / er / yer ) sathhe ] 
5.3 Translation of English Idiomatic PPs 
The meaning of an idiomatic PP cannot be de-
rived from the meanings of its components. The 
simplest way to tackle them is to maintain a list-
ing of them. A list or a direct Example Base is 
used which contains idioms, which start with 
prepositions, along with their Bengali transla-
tions.  Such an idiom is treated like any other PP 
during the word-reordering phase. Here are some 
examples of them: 
(1) at times  � � a]ãÌ^ a]ãÌ^ 
(samaye samaye) 
(2) by hook or crook  � � 
å^\öçã[ý+ åc÷çEõ (jebhabei hok) 
(3) to a fault  � � ]çyç×Tö×Ì[ýNþ 
(matratirikto) 
6 Conclusion 
In the present study, the handling of English 
prepositions in Bengali has been studied with 
reference to a machine translation system from 
English to Bengali. English prepositions are han-
93
dled in Bengali using inflections and / or using 
post-positional words. In machine translation, 
sense disambiguation of preposition is necessary 
when the target language has different represen-
tations for the same preposition. In Bengali, the 
choice of the appropriate inflection depends on 
the spelling of the reference object. The choice 
of the postpositional word depends on the se-
mantic information about the reference object 
obtained from the WordNet.   
Acknowledgements  
Our thanks go to Council of Scientific and In-
dustrial Research, Human Resource Develop-
ment Group, New Delhi, India for supporting 
Sudip Kumar Naskar under Senior Research Fel-
lowship Award (9/96(402) 2003-EMR-I). 

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