American Journal of Computational Linguistics 
Microfiche 17' 
NEWSLETTER OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS 
VOLUME 12 - NUMBER 2 JULY 1975 
Released for publication on June 20, 1975. 
This number of The Finite String contains news items, four 
short technical contributions, and a description of the 
constituent societies of the American Federation of Infor- 
mation Processing Societies. 
Volume 12, Number 3 of The Finite String is distributed in 
the same packet of A J C L . It contains a short survey 
paper and current bibliography. 
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF COMPUTATIDNAL LINGUISTICS is published by 
the Center for Applied Linguistics for the AssociatFon for 
Computational Linguistics 
ED ITOR David G Hays Professor of Linguistics and of Computer Science, 
State University of New York, Buffalo 
EDITORIAL. STAFF Jeff F. Lesinski, Assistant Pro Tern.; Jacquin 
Brendle , Secretary 
EDITORIAL ADDRESS Twin Willows, Wanakah, New York 14075 
MANAGING EDITOR A. Hood Roberts Deputy Director, Center for Applied 
Linguistics 
MANAGEMENT STAFF Nancy Jokovich and David Hoffman 
PRODUCTION AND SUBSCRIPTION ADDRESS 1611 North Kent Street, Arlington 
~irginia 22209 
Copyright 1975 
Association for Computational Linguistics 
American Journal of Computational If aguisticr iYicrofzche 17 : 2 
CONTENTS 
ERSONAE NOTES . . ......... ......... 3 
COLING 76 - sixth Int~rnational Conference on C L # ... 5 
LETTERS - Yorick Wilks on LOGOS M T . . 8 
AWARDS - AFIPS honors Iverson, Astrhan + 10 
NSF - Chapin new program officer for linguistics . . 11 
ACM . Forsythe student paper competition . . ... 12 
Natimal Computer Conference 1976.. Hammer, Winkler . 13 
A A A S Section T . new name, fellowship program . . . 14 
Ottawa Linguistics Documentation Centre . .... . . 15 
MT and MAT list of systems and centers ... . . . . 16 
N F A I S officers for 1975 . ..... ..... 19 
ABSTRACTING AND INDEXING . world inventory of services . 20 
THE ATEF AND CETA SYSTEMS - J Chauche ..... .... 21 
1 . Labeled trees . .......... 22 
2 . The ATEF system . . .... . . 23 
.......... 3 . The CETAsystem 31 References ......... . . 40 
POLITICAL SCIENCE . terminology . George J . Graham. Jr . 
COMPUTATIONAL SEMAN'IICS . Report on the Tutorial at Villa 
Heleneum. Lugano . S . Hanon. G . Koch. and G . S~ndergaard 47 
Parsing English (Wilks) . ... . 48 
Inference and Knowledge (Charniak) . . 57 
...... Memory Models (Scragg) . . 62 
........ Semantics in Linguistics 65 
Diverse ........ ... . 66 
............. Appreciation 67 
......... References . 68 
...... . 
FOEQfULAE IN'COHEKENT TEXT Felix Dreizin . . 70 
A F I P S Constituent S~~cieties . Purposes. Membership 
Reauirements. Activities. Publications. Dues. Addresses 86 
American Journal of Computations Linguistics 
Microfiche 17 .- 3 
PERSONAL NOTES 
~pecialfies and changed or improved addresses received 
since publication of the 2974 Membership Directory are 
givt?n in asterisked entries. 
BUSA, REV. ROBERTO, SI * Department of Philosophy, ALOISIANLFf 
(College) , 21013 Gallarate, Italy. Index Thornisticus - 
Inventory and census of large quantity of natural text, lemmatized 
and codified as to text typolagy. 
DQUVILLE, MRS. JUDITH A. *Metals Information Center, Olin Corpora- 
tion, 91 Shelton Avenue, New Haven, Connecticut 06504. 
Indexin.g, abstracting, chemical literature searching; organization 
and maintenance of scientific information centers. 
ENGELS, LEOPOLD-KAREL * Applied Linguistics; Katholieke Cnives- 
siteit Leuven, 61/3-Tiense Vest, 3200 Kessel-Lo, Belgium. 
Automatic syntactic analysis of English; discourse analysis. 
JOSH1 , ARAVIND K. "Department of Computer and Information Science, 
University of Fennsylvania, R. 268 Moore School, Phila- 
delphia 19174, syntactic and semahtic representations; mathema- 
tical linguistics and logic; artificial intelligence. 
KAPLAN, RONALD PhD 1975, Psychology, Harvard University. 
LONGYEAR, CHRI STOPHER R. *Formal pragmatic representations; 
natural language models; da-ta base structur~s. 
MATHIAS, GERALD B. To Department of East Asian Languages, 
Moore Hall 370, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1890 
East West Road, Honolulu 96822, from Indiana University. 
NEEDHAM, DR. KA~REN SPARCK JONES * Semantics, information retrieval, 
~Tassifkation. 
PERSONAL NOTES 4 
NEEDHAM, ROGER *Computing, operatingsystems. 
I 
PHILLIPS, BRIAN PhD 1975, State University of New York, Buffalo, 
Linguistics (Topic analysis) . 
SAGVALL. FIL. DR. ANNA-LENA *Department of Slavonic Languages 
and Data Center, Uppsala University. Automatic text analysis, 
applied mainly to Russian text. Automatic text understanding, applied 
to Swedish medical text. 
SALKOFF, MORRIS *Laboratoire d14utomatidue Documentaire et 
Linguisrique, Universite de Paris 7. 2, Place Jussieu, 
Paris 5, France. Automatic syntactic analysis of French; 
compilation of a dictionary of F~ench verbal constructions. 
SCHUEGRAF DR. ERNST *Ihformation retrieval; statistical linguistics. 
SHAPIRD, STUART C. "Semantic networks, representing and carrying 
out inferences computer assisted instruction. 
SILVA. GEORGETTE *System Development Corporation, 2500 Colorado 
Avenue, Santa Monica, California 90406. Natu~al language 
processing; linguistics. 
SP ITZBARDT, PROF. DR. HARRY 'Automatic morpheme analysis; English, 
Indonesian. 
SUPPLE. JAMES P. *Product Support, Compute1 Systems Ltd 
Scientific computer languages (Fortran, Algol, APL, 
Snobol); AI (visual); Biopnysics (radiaL,distribution 
function) . 
WEBB, FREDERICK N. *Computer Systems Division, Bolt Beranek 
and Newman Inc. Progrgrnming languages, syntax descriptior 
1 anguages, data structures. 
American Journal of Computational Linguistics Microfiche 17 5 
S I XTH 
INTERNATIONAL 
CONFERENCEl4ON 
CCNPUTATIO AL 
LINGUISTICS COLIMI; 76 
UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA: DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS. 
IN COLLABORATION WITH 
PROBLEMS AND METHODS 
SEMANTICS: LOGIC AND A I 
SEMANTICS: LINGUISTIC 
PARS I NG AND SYNTHES I S 
LEXICOGRAPHY AND STYLI ST1 CS 
SPEECH RECOGNITION AND SYNTHESIS 
PAPERS ON MT AND MAT ARE WELCOME IN ALL THEME AREAS 
Additional information on following frames 
COLING 76 
ADDRESSES REGISTRATION COLTNG 7 6 
Department of Linguistics 
University of Ottawa 
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KIN 6N5 
Telephone: 613-231-5778, 4207 
SUBMISSIOP 
Mar tin, Kay 
Xerox Palo Alto Research Center 
3333 Coyote Hill Road 
Pa10 Alto, California 94304 
SUBMISSION DATES December 1, 1975 1000-word abstract 
March 1, 1976 Selection announced 
May 15, 1976 Full text 
Preprints available at the conference 
LANGUAGES 
FEES 
FRENCH, ENGLISH The organizers will attempt 
to provide simultaneous 
interpretation in Russian 
i E cfrcumstances warrant 
BEFORE MAY 1, 1976 AFTER 
Participant $40 
A'c comp any ing $20 
Student $i5 
$50 Includes excursion 
and preprints 
$25 Includes program 
of visits 
Payment by check, money order, Charqex, or Bankamericard 
Banquet tickets for sale at the conference 
COLING 76 
ARRIVAL 
DEMONSTRATION 
Student residences on campus 
Lord Elgin Hotel, 5 minute$ from campus 
Cafeterias on campus 
Restaurants in Ottawa and Hull 
Banking and exchange facilities on campus 
Mirabel Airport, serving Montreal and 
Ottawa, is one hour from t.he campus by a 
road to be opened in 1976- 
IBM 360/65 on campus 
IBM 2741 and cer ain other peripherals 
at the conference 
Advance notice requested, not later than 
May I., 1976 
American Journal 
LETTERS 
Computational 
Linguistics Microfiche 17 : 8 
- - --.--- --- -- 
I The Finite String publishes latter& of 
1 reasonable length on topics relevant to 
I 
coniputational linguistics. On occasion 
letters are reviewed by referees prior 
to publication. 
---.---- ----- ---- - -, 
Fondazione Dalle Molle 
6976 Castagnola, Switzerland 
May I cslarify a little the two sentences of mine about 
the LOGOS Machine Translation system that you were kind 
enough to publish and which provoked Mr. Scott s mere 
extended reply? r feel sure that the differences betyen 
him and me are only matters of definition of what is un- 
restricted natural language and it may be worth making 
that clear. Let me also add that nothing I said was meant 
to deny that the cammercial MT companies like his own 
have done-excellent work, and that I wish them well in 
the future. But Whether they have solved the MT problem 
for natural language in the sense in which that problem 
was understood the last time round this cycle in the 
Fifties and Sixties, is another matter, and I remain to 
be convinced. 
For thoge who have just joined in, let me remind them 
that the intractable problems its first phase 
were word sense anibiguity, case ambiguity (of prepositions, 
and referential ambiguity 
(roughly, 
pro- 
nouns). Anyone who. claims to have solved thoseproblems 
without making any general theoretical claims about 
natural language in the process is either dealing with 
restricted languaqe, or is in much the same position as 
one who arrives to demonstrate a perpetual motion machine. 
In the latter case, he is entitled to a respectful hearing, 
but there is nonetheless a certain scepticism in the 
audience. No amount of talk about millions of dollars 
spent, or important contracts obtained makes that hard 
fact any softer, 
Mr. Scott says. that UN treatises shaulsd be a test case 
of what is natural, rather than restricted, language. 
I quite agree, and if his system can translate an unseen 
UN treatise chosen by a neutral party to the satisfaction 
of a neutral audience then I will back down. He is careful 
not to say he has done it, and I personally believe that 
LETTERS 
he cannot do it, armed with a phrase structure grammar. 
a semantic categorisation system and nothing more. The 
reasons why are set out in any standard paper on Artificial 
Intelligence and Natural Language. They involve the essen- 
tial role of semantic structures, inference and knowledge 
of the world in understanding and so in translation. I will 
be happy to send him a bibliography. 
Sincerely, 
L LJch 
American Journal of Computational Liaguis tics 
Microfiche 17 : 10 
HARRY GOODE MEMORIAL AWA'RD 
KENNETH El IVERSON 
AFL won its inventor the eleventh award presented by AFIPS 
for outstanding contributions to computing,. 
Dr. Iverson, IBM Fellow and Manager of the APL Design Group 
at IBM's System Development Division in Philadelphia, was formerly 
on the faculty of applied mathematics at Harvard. 
AFIPS DISTINGUISHED SERVICE AWARD 
YIORTON No ASTRAHAN 
His key role in the formation of AFIPS and his influence on 
the growth, programs; and service of the organization earned Dr. 
Astrahan the third AFIPS award for service to the computing field 
through accomplishments on behalf of the Federation. 
Dr. Astrahan organized and was first chairman (1952-53) of the 
Institute of Radio Engineers Professional Group on Electronic 
Computers, predecessor to the.IEEE Computer Society. He has been 
with IBM for more than 25 years: the 701, SAGE, associative memory 
using program interrupt for I/O control, and two years in France. 
American Journal of Computational Linguistics 
Microfiche 17 : 11 
AUL CHAP 
Dr. Chapin goes to the National Science F~undation in August 
from the University of California, San Diego, where he has 
been since 1967 except fok a year at the University of Hawaii 
(1971-72)- 
His doctorate is from MIT (1967). While a qraduate student, 
he worked in Donald Walker's sroup at the MITRE Corporation. 
At UCSD he has taught and conducted research in descriptive 
and theoretical syntax. computational linguistics, psycno- 
lirrguistics, and comparative Polynesian linguistics. Since 
1973, he has been an Assistant Provost ~f John.Muir College, 
one of UCSD's four undergraduate cluster coxleges. 
In Hawaii Dr. Chapin studied Polynesian history and culture. 
with the support of an ACLS Study Fellowship. 
Dr, Chapih succeeds Alan Bell as NSF Program Director for 
Linguistics; br. Be: -1s returns to the Department of Linguistics 
at the UniveYsity of  lorado ado, Boulder. 
Announcing 1975AC 
American Journal of Computational Linguistics 
Microfiche 17 : 13 
1976 
NATIONAL COMPUTER CONFERENCE 
NEW YORK CLTY JUNE 7-10 
EXHIBTTSt CQLISEW 
HOTELS " HI LTDN AMERJ CANA 
CONFERENCE GHA~ RMAN 
CARL HAMMER 
DIRECTQR OF COMPUTER SCIENCES 
SPERRY UNIVAC, WASHINGTON 
PROGRAM 4 CHA I RMAN 
STANLEY W INKLDR 
MANAGER OF APPLIED TE C'HNOLOGY 
IBM SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT nsvfsro~ 
GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND 
DR. HAMMER is a.member of the AFIPS Board of Directors and 
Adjunct Professor at American University and the industrial 
College of the Armed Forces. 
DR. WINKLER is Adjunot Professor of Computer Systems at 
American University 
American Journal of Computational Linguistics Microfiche 17 : 14 
AAAS SECTION T 
INFORMATI ON r COM-PUTI'NG AND/ POMMUN I CAT1 ONS 
The section has adopted a new name and is looking for ways to give 
its subject matter greater visibility in Science: reviews of the 
state of component arts; editorials; program and committee parti- 
cipation ; etc. 
The section, with 1234 members has 106 Fellows and a ouata of 8 
nominations for election to fellowship this year 
The secretary of the section can supply information about the 
Congressional Science Fellowship Program which provides a stipend 
of about $15,000 to scientists and engineers who spend one year 
on the staff of a congressman,. a congress'ional committee, or the 
Office of Technology Assessment. 
The Secretary is Joseph Becker, 11661 San Vicente Boulevard, 
Los Ancjeles 90049. 
American Journal of ComputationaI Linguistics 
Microfiche 17 : 15 
LING,UISTICS 
DOCUMENTATION 
CENTRE 
Universi ty of Ottawa 
KIN 6N5 613-231-6578 
LIffiUISTfe BIBLIOGRAPHY SERIES 
SEMWTICS OF HUMAN !..ANGUAGE 
Thomas R. Hofmann 
118 pages, 2400 entries. ISBN 0-7766-4601-Xi $4.00. 
LJNGUISTIC BIBLIOGRAB~JES 
MACHINE TRANSLATION IN CANADA 
In preparation 
PUBLISHERS AND SUPPLIERS #OF 
MATERIALS FOR LINGUISTICS 
DIRECT CURRENT SERVICES 
Computer stored, frequently updated. Single copies on 
computer paper by surface mail free of charge. On good 
quality paper, air mail outside Canada, $2 prepaid. 
DIRECTORY OF LINGUISTIC ORGANIZATrONS 
CALENDAR DF LINGUISTIC EVENTS 1975-1977 
CONFERENCE INTERPRSTERS~ GLOSSARY, ENGLISH - FRENCH 
ACCESS-ION LIST OF THE CENT~E SINCE 1974 
DIRECTORY OF CANAD-IAN E~UCATION IN SPEECH PATHOLOGY 
~~BLIOGRAPHY OF LINGUISTICS AND DOCUMENTATION 
LOCAL OR TELEPHONE CONSULTATION 
Holdings include 200 bibliographies, 20 dictionaries of 
linguistic terminology, CAN/SDI-ERIC current-awareness 
cards, files of meeting programs, courses, job offers, 
serial publications, privately circulated papers, 
offprints, etc. 
American Journal of Computational Linguistics 
Microfiche 17 : 16 
MACH IHE (AIDED . --- TR,AfiSLATION ---~.I,-~.... -- 
Haslerstrasse 12 
3008 Berne, Switzerland 
This preliminary list will be followed by a complete report (see 
AJCZ Card 29) . The surveyer requests information on other MT 
systems and projects. 
* Users 
+ Practical systems 
o 
Only second-hand information as yet 
1 T SYSTEMS 
AMER I CA Canada 
Univer3i te de Montreal 
Lakehead Uni versi t y 
United Stat es ~tomic Energy Commission - Georgetown ~niversi t y 
Air Force, Dayton, Ohio 
N A S A, Texas* 
University of Texas, Austin 
Universj ty of California, Berkeley 
Brigham Young Universi t y 
Latsec, Jnc. 
Logos DeVel oprnent Corpora ti on, 
Xonics, Inc. 
XYZYX 
Smart Information Corparation 
r'l T SYSTEMS 
ASIA HQng Kong 
Japan 
EUROPE ~ulgar ia 
Germany 
France 
Chinese University 
Kyushu Universi ty 
Kyoto University 
Electrotechnical Laboratory, Tokyo 
Academy of Sciences, Sofia 
~niversi tat Heidelberg-Konstanz 
Universi tat Kaln 
~niversi ta t Saarbrucken 
Zentralstel le fur Textildokumen tation und 
information, Dusseldorf 
Universite de Grenoble 
Insti tut Textile de France, Paris 
Great Britain University College, Cardiff 
Italy EURATOM, Ispra 
Switzerland Insti tute for Semantic and Cognitive Studies 
Soviet Union o Leningrad Universi t y 
Language Statistics Group, Leningrad 
o Insti tute of Applied Mathematics, Moscow 
o Insti tu te of Elect~otechnics, Noscow 
o Institute for Control Systems, Tiflis 
Czechoslovakia Charles University, Prague 
COMPUTER-AIDED TRANSLATION SYSTEMS 
AMER I CA Canada + Universite de Montreal 
united States * CETA, Kensington 
+ IBM, New Y~rk 
EUROPE Germany * Bundessprachendmt, Hlfrth 
+ IBM Deut~chland, Stuttgart 
* Siemens AG, Munchen 
Easb Germany + Technische Universi tat Dresden 
Luxemburg * European Communi ties 
!'l T SYSTEMS 
PROJECTS FOR C A T SYSTEM6 
AMERICA Canada 
EUROPE Germany 
ASIA 
Secretariat dlEtat, Bureau des 
TraductionG, Ottawa 
AusWartiges Amt, Bonn 
~osch GHbH, Stuttgart 
Bayer AG, Leverkusen 
Netherlands Foreign  ini is try 
Phi Zips, ~indhoven 
Switzerland Brown, soveri & Cie AG, Baden 
United Na.tions, Geneva 
Japan National Translating Ins ti tute of 
Science and Technology, Tokyo 
American Journal of Computational Lingulst~cs 
Microfiche 17 : 19 
NATI0NA.L FEDERATION OF ABSTRACTING & INDEXING SERVICES 
3401 MARKET STREET PHILADELPHIA PA 19104 (215) 349-8495 
OFFICERS ELECTED 
PRESIDENT BEN H. WEIL 
Exxon Research and Engineering Company 
PRESIDENT-ELECT JOHN E. CREPS, JR. 
Engineering Index, Inc . 
SECRETARY RUSSELL J. ROWLETT, JR. 
Chemical Abstracts Service 
TREASURER HENRY M. KOEHLER 
~merican Rental Association 
BOARD. MEMBERS H. DAVID CHAFE, 3 YEARS 
American Society for Metals 
INEZ L. SPERR, 3 YEARS 
National Association of Social Workers, 3nc. 
BEN-AMI LIPETZ, 1 YEAR 
Documentation Abstracts, Inc . 
ROBERT Ha MARKS, 1 YEAR 
~merican Institute of Physics 
Mr. Creps, Executive Director of Eli, is a member of the U.S 
National Committee for the International Council of Scientific 
Unions Abstracting Board. While employed at BioScien-ees Infor 
mation Service, he developed and cohducted marketing and educa- 
tional activities for Biological Abstracts. 
American Journal of Computational Linguistics Microfiche 17 20 
WORLD INVENTORY OF 
ABSTRACTING AND IIjDEXING SERVICES 
A machine-readable inventory was expected to be complete by 
July 1, 1975; publication is planned by the end of the year. 
Gaye Hoffman is Project Coordinator at the National Federation 
of Abstracting and Indexing Services and Toni Carbo Bearman is 
Principle Investigator of the National Science Foundation grant 
recently supplemented with $26,650. The Federation,Interna- 
tionale de Documentation and UNESCO UNISIST are supporting.the 
development of the inventory. 
American Journal of Comput atioaal Linguistics 
Microfiche 17 : 21 
Ja CHAUCHE 
Nathematiques Appliquees - Informatique 
Universite Scientifique et Medicale 
Gr enobl e 
SUMMARY 
ATEF converts an input string into a labeled tree; the label 
evolves under the control of a grammar. A set of labels is 
associated with each segment of the string, and several func- 
tions permit control of the number of alternative labels. 
CETA simulates a transformatianal grammar. It uses a set of 
grammars with conditional linkages. The applicabili&y of a 
transformation can be determined in part by conditions on the 
resulting tree. 
Computer processing 3f natural languages requires more or 
less polished algorithmic models. The two systems presented 
here represent a choice of a large class among the algorithms 
proposed in recent years to solve these problems. The prin- 
cipal choice determined by these systems lies in the formal use 
of labeled trees ( arborescences ) . Freedom of choice of these 
la-bels and possible structures gives these systems broad fields 
of applications in several domains and notably in that of the 
automatic processing of natural languages. The ATEF system has 
the purpose of transformFng a string of words into a tree which 
is manipulable by the CETA system. The definition of labeled 
trees determines what objects CETA can manipulate and the objec- 
ti'ves of ATEF. This note therefore begins with the definition 
of labeled trees. To obtain a tree of this type beginning with 
an input string, ArEF uses a dictionary and a finite-state gram- 
mar. The result of this system can be manipulated by CETA in 
order to obtain the desired type of structure. The example of 
analysis given here shows the possibilities of the CETA system 
w?th two different manipulative strategies: search for consti- 
tuent or dependency structure . 
1, LABELED TREES 
A rree is a set of points with which is associated a struc- 
ture, that is to say a relation having the properties: 
The relation between two points is directed (one 
point depends on the other) 
A point Cannot depend on a point belonging to its 
own descent set (the descent set of a point is the 
set of points that depend on it, the points that 
depend on them, etc. ) 
A unique point descends from no other. 
It is possible to draw a tree placing below a point all of its 
descendants, linked by lines. (See the example on the next 
frame. ) 
A labeled tree is a tree such that with each of its points 
is associated a lab-el This label IS formed of a set of data. 
The figure below represents a labeled tree. 
fernthe,-nom commurr feminin, sin&ul.ier 
une, article irresisxible jeur~e 
rousse 
indef ini, f eminin adjectif, fcr-ir,iri 
adjectif, feminin adjectif,couleur 
singulier singu*ier 
singulier f5minin,singulier. 
derivation 
negative du 
verbe resister 
vers I adjemlf 
7: T-E ATEF SYSTEM 
The purpose of the ATEF system is to transform an input 
sming of words into a labeled tree, each word in the string 
possibly,leading to one or several points in the final tree 
(ambiguity). The determination of the label originating 
in an 
input word results from its analysis. This analysis proceeds 
by segme~tation of the input word according to elements from 
different dictional: ies . A correct segmentation therefore gives. 
a label for a point of the final tree . 
Tn advance of any. 
analysis, the definition of the elements employed in the compo- 
sition of different labels is required and is supplied by two 
Eiles called variable declaration files. 
A label will consist of a set bf variables. Each variable 
must be defined with its set of possible values. Thus if one 
defines the variable "category" the set of "categories" that 
can be used must be specified. The set is written 
category = (NOUN, ARTICLE, PRONOUN, ADJECTIVE, VERB, ...) 
(A constraint requires that the name of a variable must not be 
longer than 7 characters. Thus the preceding var2able could be 
written, for example, CAT = (NN, ART, Pm, ADJ, VRB, ...) ) 
The definitdon of a particular label consists in an enume- 
ration of the variables relevant to the label. A set of labels 
can be predefined and is collected in a so-called format file. 
The ATEF system analyzes the words and thus employs dictionaries 
A dictionary is a set of segments (character strings), ~th each 
of which is associated a label, a processing pointer, and a 
lexical unit pointer. The processing pointer specifies the par- 
ticular process which must be associated with the segment. 
The analysis of the input word by the ATEF system resides 
at first in a label processing, that is to say in an evolution 
of the empty label toward a final label characteristic of the 
analyzed word This evolution is controlled by the grammar, 
which at each moment has access to two labels. the label being 
developed (noted by the symbol C) and the label associated with 
the segment which was read in the dictionary (noted by A) The 
analysis of a word aims to produce a segmentation of the woru 
simultaneously compatible with the segments of the different 
dictionaries (the word must be an assembly of dictionary seg- 
ments) and compatible with a correct evolution of the grammar 
Thus the segmentation of the input ~ord is tighcly bound to 
the evolution of the grammar which controls the coherence of 
the segmentation In the course of a segmentation operation 
the state of the system takes into account for the analyzed 
word 
the label resuLting from the analysis of the 
segments al~eady obtarned for this word 
the label associated with the segment found 
in a dictlonary 
the remaining characters of the input word 
the complete form of the input word 
Thus for example in the course of the analysis of the 
word irresistible and after analysis of the segment "ible" 
and in the course of reading the segment 'resist1' the 
following erements are obtained 
C the label resulting from the analysis of "ible" 
This label contains for example the variable 
derivation with value verb-adj, the variable 
gender with value masculine and feminine, the 
variable number with value singular. 
A the label associated with the segment''resist 
This label coatains notably the lexical unit 
"resister", the varlable category with value verb 
The character$ IR 
The complete form IRRESISTIBLE 
The purpose of the grammar is to permit or prevent the 
evolution of label C starting wlth label A Here, the label 
will evolve and obtaln the variable category wlth value adjec- 
tive. A rule associated with the segment "resist" by means of 
its pointer will therefore describe this evolution of the label 
C. When no evolution of the label C is possible, the corres- 
ponding segmentation is blocked and considered nonsignificant. 
The set of labels plays a fundamental role in this system 
and forms the set of sts~tes of the finite state transducer 
corresponding to the logical model of the system Each coherent 
segmentation of a word (a word can have several coherent segmen- 
tations leading to ambiguities) provides a labeled point in the 
final tree Three elements are fundamental to the system 
the choice and evolution of the segmentation 
the calculation of the set of labels associated 
with a word 
the positioning of the labeled points created by 
the analysis of a word in the final tree 
The choice and evolution of the segmentation has to do with 
the sequence of input characters. The segmentation forces, 
above all, a prior linguistic choice. Thus with the segment "UN" 
two possibilities can be conceived 
either accept "UN E" as a coherent segmentation 
or have the segment "Ul?E" in the dictionary and 
refuse the segmentation "UN El' 
For each initial form several segmentations are possible 
to arrive at the same results arid only a linguie tic study of 
the phenomena permits a decision on the strategy to be adopted. 
In any event, this stLategy is left to the user of the system 
In the course of a segmentation the system can operate d~rectly 
on the nonsegmented chatacters in order to force them into a 
"canonical'! form. Thus in the case of the word reel several 
possib~lities arise to accept a word like realite 
put the segment "real" in a dictionary as well as 
the segmenf "reel", the former will generate words 
like realite, irrealite, etc. 
put the single segment "reel" in the dictionary and 
the analysis of the word realite Qill follow the 
schema 
realit& => 1st segment found "lte", remainder "real" 
mddificat&on real ->r&el => 2nd segment found "reel" 
segmentation ."riSel it&" 
N B In thls analysis, it is to be noted that the 
search for successive segqents is performed from 
left to right £ox the input word. This depends on 
the strategy adopted and, for a given use, the 
direction of the segmentatson of a word can be either 
left to right or right to left. 
To avoid a proliferation of possible segmentations and there- 
fore of possible solutions, several functions provide for inter- 
vention in the segmentation A first possibility is offered b:~ 
the management of the dictionaries In fact, the system includes 
several dictionaries and after isolation of each segment the 
I I 
system can open" or "close" a dictionary 
This method makes it easy to avoid, for example, looking 
€or two consecutive prefixes. Another mode of intervention 
uhich is more direct, is peovided by the presence of functions 
acting on the enumeration procedures by which the system counts 
~ff solutions. For example, the system analyzes all possible 
segmentations starting with a given segment beginning with the 
segmentations containing most characters. An intervention at 
this level makes it possible hot to analyze but to reject sub- 
segmentations of P segment. The analysis of the segment "UNE" 
can, for example, reject the analysis of the subsegment "UN E" 
(Observe that the segmentation of the word "chacune" will then 
be obtained as GAC UNE because th8 segmentation CHACUN E will. be 
rejected as a subsegmentation of "UNE" This problem can easily 
be resolved because these functions appear in the rules of the 
grammar and are consequently conditional. One can at the same 
time f"orbid the subsegmentation "UN E-" in the word "UNE" and 
aur;horize this. segmentatian in the word "CHACUNE") 
The calculation of the set of labels associated ~ith a word 
is produced and controled by the grammar. This calculation cor- 
responds above all with a conditianal modification of the label C 
or current state starting from the label A or argument state. 
The condition for the evolution of this label is such that if no 
evolution is possible then the corresponding segmentation Ls 
rejected. This condition can refer to the labels of the pre- 
ceding analyzed words and can condition its result on the analysis 
of the following form. Thus for example in the course of the 
analysis of the word "LA" in the sequence "il la voit", the 
segmentation taking "la" as article can be rejected. 
The trans- 
fer of information to different labels can be realized through 
assignmenttothe following label S. When this label has been 
assigned in the course of the analysis of a word the analysis 
of the follow'ing word will begin with the assigned label instead 
ef the null label. 
The final result of the system is a labeled tree. With no 
supplementary specification in the course of analysis, this tree 
appears in the following form: 
0' 
w ---- 43 w n Au .p - -- 
A fi, A >* 
solution 1 I solution & 
phrase I ph~ase I phrase p phrase p 
The solution for a sentence (~hrase) consists of a string 
of labels (one for each word of the sentence), each of which 
represents an interpretation of a ward of this sentence. In 
this case, the sentence is not structured; simply the ambiguities 
are sepa~ated. Th the course of the analysis of the words, a 
first sketch of a construct5an can be made and give as result a 
more developed tree. These functions specify the position that 
the point to which the calculated mask applies must take in the 
final tree. This position is determined in all cases below a 
point w, and is relative to the root (first point on the left 
below wi) and to the rightmost point of the tree already con- 
structed. Thus this point can become itself the root, the 
rightmost leaf, etc. 
With, for example, the analysis of the string "une belle 
maison", we can. have 
11 
during the analysis of une", no tree 
during the analysis of "belle", the tree eontains the 
single point "une". A function can render the point 
"belle" as root and give belle 
une 
during the analysis of "maison", if the constructed 
tree is belle,. a function can provide for swapping 
we 
the root with the occurrence in work and give the tree 
une belle. 
In this case, the result for the system will be 
une belle 
5, THE CETA SYSTEM 
The CETA system provides for writing and s5mulating a 
transformational grammar. This system manipulates labeled trees 
of the type described above (labeled trees produced by the ATEF 
or other system). To construct a transformational grammar with 
this system two complementary elements are necessary: 
the set of rules used defines the set of prfmitives 
of the system for a given application 
The set of grammars and the definition of their 
linkage defines the mode of use of the primitives 
The definition of a transformation rule defines a mode of 
potential transformation of the tree considered. A rule is de- 
fined by a le'fthand part representing the subtree to be modi- 
fied and a righthand part defining the resulting subtree. For 
example, let the following be two rules: 
ART NMC 
ART [UM~ 
ART NMC 
NMC 
ART 
On the tree resulting from the analysis by the ATEF system 
of the senterice "une irresistible jeune femme rousse", we will 
have the following applications: 
une irrgslstible jeurre femme rousse irresistible .ibunz GT*' rousse 
- 
art. edj. adj. NVC adj. adj. 
1 
e 
! , adj. Aadj. 
art. [JMC 
i 
uns irresistible jeune femme 'ousse irr6sistible Jeune femme rousse 
art. adj. ad j .. 
@ I . NMC wj adj. ag 
. 
I 8 
adj. 
! I 1 
une 
art. 
I 
In fact, the~defin'itton of a transformation can call on a 
hierarchical set of subtrees. In the example taken here, the 
input tree is not very "deep" and most often only one-level trees 
are applicable. However, in the course of development of a corn- 
plete structure, tshe considered tree is arbitrary and the defini- 
tion of a complex transformation constructed beginning with 
several subtrees is very refined. The subtrees defined in a 
rule can likewise be considered. ordered or unordered Let 
rule R3 below be considered as unardered: 
-T 
ADJ NIVIC . 
NMC 
1 
Several apprications of this rule are possible on the same 
in-put as befme. 
W 
une irrOsistible jeune femme rousse une irrgsiStible femme rousse 
art. i NMC a 
# 
8 
aft. 4 
NMC 
b I 
a 
--. 
* 
b 
I 
une irresistible jeune femme rousse 
adj. NMC adj. 
: 
at 
. 
: 
jeune 
adj. 
. 
une jeune femme rouisu 
art. aGj. NMC . .. - aqj. 
i I 
I 
7 
uns ~1-~-~~1s~ible 
jeune f~mme rousse 
art. adj. 
aQJ. 
NMC adj. 
I 
f 1 I 
- 
uric' irrisistible jeune femme* 
art. adj. 
I % 
aqj. NMC 
I 
I 
rousse 
adj. 
The linkage of the different rules previously described is 
defined by the set of elementary grammars. 
An elementary gram- 
mar c~~n~ists of ordered rules. A rule Ri will be applied prior 
to an R. if the order of R. is less ahan the order of R 
J 1 j 
An 
elementary grammar has furthermore a mode of execution. Atl ele- 
mentary grammmar unitarily executable is such that its result 
will be obtained after an application of a part of the set of 
rules mentioned. (An application of the rules mentioned can 
cause to appear new possible applications which will not be per- 
formed in this case.) Anoth-er mode of application of an elemen- 
tary grammar is exhaustive. In this mode, the set of rules of 
the gzammar will be applied up ro the maximum but the application 
of a given rule has the effect of eliminating it from this ele- 
mentary grammar. (That is, for a given point.) With this second 
mode of application, the number of possible steps for a given 
tree is always finite. Within an elementary grammar which is 
unitarily or exhaustively exechtable, the presence of recursive 
rules makes. it possible to obtain complex constructions by 
simulating repetitive procedures. A recursive rule is charao- 
terized by a call to a new grammar (which can obviously be the 
same as thae in which the recursive rule is found). The result 
of'the application of a recursive rule consists of the tree 
obtained after transformation by the called grammar of rhe tree 
transformed by the rule in question. 
For example, let R3 and R2 be the-rules previously described. 
The elementary grammar G consistiag of these two rules will 
furnish as result, 
In unitary mode: application of R3. (Priority is 
given by the order of enumeration of the rules.) 
une irrgsistible jeune femme rousse une irrgsistible femme rousse 
art. adj. adj. NMC adj'. art. adj. NMC 
I . 
.... aGj. 
a 
I a. 
a 
1. 
I 
a 
I 
In exhaustive mode: application of R3 then R2. 
(figure at top of next frame) 
une irresistible jeune fe&ne rousse 
adJ. rdMC adj. 
\ i t 
une irrgsistible femme rousse 
art. aqj. 
? I 
adj. 
1 
NMC 
..a 
I 
jeune 
une 
jeune 
adj . 
* 
With Grammar G' containing rules R3 and R2, but specifying 
that R3 LI~US~ be recursive and call G', we have: 
W 
.JnG irr6sistPble jeune femme rousse 
art. arjj. 
# 
f ; 
adj. NMC 
I 
adj 
I I 
une irr6sistible femme rpusse 
adj. 
4 
une f mnie rousse 
irreiistible jeune 
ad9 .. adj, 
-.-- 
A 
une 
- - 
f ernme 
a~t. NMC 
- III 
adj . adj. adj. 
* 
* 
f 
I 
femme 
art. agj. 
adj. 3dj 
i • @ 
a, 1. 
Application of rule R3* corresponds to the1 recursive 
call of this rule, terminating when the rule is nb longer 
applicable. 
With rules R4, R5, and R6, the construction is 
ART GN I 
ADJ GNl 
A 
ADJ GN'I 
art. add. 
1 
a 
* 
# 
I 
sdj. NMC adj. 
I I I 
1 4 
une GNI 
irresistible GiVl 
adj. 
f smme 
NMC 
The definition of a CETA grammar consT-s-t-s of a set of 
elementary grammars and a conditional linking procedure over 
them. The linking must he such that the Corresponding graph 
is loop-free. An elementary gxamar from which no linking is 
possible yields as result the input tree in place of the 
transformed tree. This procedure permits one to obtain a 
methad of analysis involving several criteria of acceptance, 
each consisting in the presence of a tree schema in the 
terminal tree. 
Translation of a tcx~ prepared for the First National Gonference 
on Computational Linguistics, Varna, May, 1975. 
American Journal af Computational Ling?listics 
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS 
INVENTORY AND ANALYSIS OF 
TERMINOLOGY IN 
POLITICAL SCI ENCE 
Box 1830, Station B , 
Varlderbil t University 
Nashville, Tennessee 37235 
At the 1970 International Political Science Associatio~ 
Congress in Munich, the first informal meeting was held of 
what became Research Cornittee Number One of the Association, 
the Committee on Conceptual and Tem~nological Analysis (COCTA) 
This committee (which includes political scient ists, sociolo- 
gists, anthropologists, linguists, and philosophers) has been 
moving toward several objectives of concept clarification in 
political and social analysis. COCTA has organized panels at 
many polirical science and socialogy associations, including 
its formal, association with the C mparative Interdisciplinary 
Studies Section of the International Studies Association as 
the Internet on Conceptual and Terminological Analysis. Over 
the half-decade of its existence, COCTA has developed sever31 
separate stages of concepmal analysis including special foci 
on metalinguistics, concept construction and reconstruction, 
and clarification of the theoretical usages of concepts. Under- 
lying these and other interebts is a prerequisite need for an 
inventory of concepts-in-use. The rationale for attempting to 
develop the inventory, and discussion of its potential usages, 
are fully stated in my Commencement of a Systematic Concept 
COCTA 
Cozlection This statement sets forth the description of the 
resulting official COCTA Concept inventory2. 
The inventory is a rather ambitious project that will 
depend upon the contributions of interested scholars. It will 
begin with special focal points within political science and 
sociology as a pilot project. The logic of this pilot collec- 
tion, however, is to provide a framework within which che col- 
lection can be expanded into other social sciences and related 
fields in the humanities. The immediate task is to commence 
the collection of social science concepts-in-use and to demon- 
strate the inventory's utility. Since the inventory can be 
commenced only by volunteers, the aid of scholars from several 
disciplines is essential to its success. Any concepts can be 
listed by interested scholars. 
The present proceduxes for entering concepts into the in- 
ventory are simple. Scholars in the fields record concepts 
and related information according to the inventory's format 
and mail them .tro me. These materials will be edited and sent 
to Carl Beck at the University of Pittsburgh where the concepts 
and information will be recorded and stored (the Pittsburgh 
'~ittsburgh: Univer.sity Center for International Studies, 
No. 9, 1974. See also the other COCTA papers listed therein. 
2~he fhal design of the collection has seriously bene- 
fitted from comments from Fred W Riggs, from those who attended 
a special workshop on the inventory at the 1975 International. 
Studies Association Meeting in Washington (including Carl Beck, 
James Bj orkman, Judy Bertelsen, Ray Corsado , David Hays, Ray 
Johnston, R. J. KirkbrPde, David Nasatir, Stephenie Neuman, 
Jona than Pool, Char les Powell, Fred Riggs , Henry Teurie, Theodore 
Bukahara, and Alan Zuckerman), and special responses from David 
Hays and Glenda Patrick. 
COCTA 43 
system also houses, among other important resources, the United 
States Political Science Information S~S~~~--UPSIS)~ 
Except 
for the labor and postage costs, to be absorbed by scholars one 
way or another, Beck's technical and storage assistance permits 
commencing the inventory without funds. Once the inventory is 
seriously commenced, funds should quickly follow. 
INVENTORY FORMAT 
For each definition of a concept from the literature, the 
following information should be recorded by typing the informa- 
tion on- 8% x 11 inch paper. The identification of field and 
its contents should follow as below, with the information re- 
placing the field descriptions. The information for some fields 
may either not be available or not be relevant, but NO RECORD 
WILL BE STORED THAT DOES NOT COMPLETE THE INFORMATION F8R THE 
FIRST. SEC~D, AND THIRD FIELDS. Each definition of a concept 
will be assigned an entry number when placed in the inventory 
because of multiple definitions for a specific term, but this 
will not affect the records sent from the field. 
FIELD DESCRIPTION OF CONTENTS 
1 
THE TERM USED BY THE AUTHQR TO REFERENCE A CONCEPT, e.g 
consensus' (IE the term is not English, it shauld be 
followed by a coma and the closest English translation 
2 ORIGINAL LANGUAGE DEFINITION DIRECTLY FROM THE TEXT. 
If the term and definition are in a language other than 
English, the definition should be followed by an EXACT 
3~he UPSIS is a special abstracting and retrieval system 
of political science articles, books, papers, etc., published in 
the United States which are indexed and retrieved by using the 
American Political Science Association's Political science Thesaurus, 
eds. Carl Beck, Eleanor D. Dym, and 3. Thomas McKechnie (Washing- 
ton, D.C.: American Political Science Association, 1975). 
COCTA 44 
English translation. (Because exact translation may 
require familiarity with the article, these entries 
require exceptional care.) 
3 The source of the definition should be fully cited by 
AUTHOR, TITLE OF PUBLICATION (article and journal title 
if appropriate), PUBLICATION INFORMATION (full standard 
references for book, journal, or other paper or publi- 
cation), and PAGE(S) from which the DEFINITION is drawn 
If guidance for full citations is needed, the most com- 
plete reference is A Manual of Style, (12th ed. ; Chicago 
and London: University of Chicago Press, 1969) 
4 RELATED CONCEPTS should be noted by identifying terms 
associated with the meaning identified by the definition. 
The use of a term is, of course, arbitrary since rneaning- 
ful associations must be with other concepts, but the 
associations of terms will provide guidelines specified 
by the individual recording the entry. Each related 
concept (identified by terms) listed should be preceded 
by BC, NC, RC, or OC as follows: 
BC BROADER CONCEPT of which the recorded concept is a 
less extensive definition 
NC NARROWER COWCEPT of which the recorded concept is a 
more extensive definition 
RC RELATED CONCEPT of which the recorded concept is on 
the same LEVEL of extension, though different in extension 
OC OVERUAPPING CONCEPT of which the recorded concept 
shares extension 
5 Category of concepts as either THEORETICAL or OPERATIONAL 
INDICATOR should be noted simply by entering either 
'!theoreticalw or "operational" in this field. This will 
facilitate searches for sets of measures far concepts in 
devising research designs. 
6 ENGLISH LANGUAGE DESCRIPTIONS OF THE USE O'F THE CQNCEPT 
should be recorded. For example., "Revolution is defined 
only for use when analyzing third world nations from the 
COCTA 45 
perspective of demographic measures. " These descrip- 
tions should attempt LO characterize the type and level 
of theory employed as completely as is possible. Seve- 
ral sentences can be used. Retrieved definitions then 
CAN be limited to only those concepts which ALSO have 
description terms of interest in this file For exam- 
ple: REVOLUTION/THIRD WORL,D/DEMOGRAPHIC. (Since the 
collection will be stored in the same retrieval network 
as USPSIS, the APS Thesaurus terms provide useful guides 
for types of descriptors that can be used in both 
systems .) 
7 IF A TERM FOR THE CONCEPT IS INCLUDED IN ESTABLISHED 
RETRIEVAL THESAURI, THESE SHOULD BE LISTED. The term 
associated with the definition may or may not be listed 
in the Political Science Thesaurus of the American Political 
Science Association, or some other thesauri IF THE 
TERM IS LISTED in any available thesaurus, the name(s) 
of the thesaurus should be listed, If in more than one, 
a coma should separate each listing. IF THE TERM IS 
KNOWN NOT TO BE LISTED IN A THESAURUS, the recorder is. 
asked to select the term(s) closest to the assigned term 
and list it, followed by the thesaurus s name (e .g. , 
"APPEASEMENT, political Science ~hesaurus") . The in- 
ternal structure of the thesaurus will provide, without 
recording for the storage system, broader, narrower, and 
related TERMS, in contrast with the recorder-listed set 
of related CONCEPTS recorded under 4. 
8 THE NAME AND LOCATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL 'RECORDING THE 
CONCEP~'S DEFINITION. 
The clarification of concepts will inevitably lead to re- 
statements of definitions from the literature, to metalinguistic 
information worth storing, etc. Any restatements not contained 
in papers, articles, books, etc., can be sent in the same for- 
COCTA 
mat as the above with the third category filled in as a COCTA 
PARTICIPANT RESTATEMENT If the restatement is in a form 
subject to citation, it is simply entered as any other concept- 
in-use . 
Because the COCTA Concept Inventory is designed to facili- 
tate research and concept clarification in the social and 
related sciences, the COCTA ~oard~ and the Director of the 
COCTA Concept Inventory hope to draw upon and share the mutual 
rewards and costs with active scholars. The enterprise depends 
upon scholars taking the time to record the concepts they are 
using and promises, in return, to facilitate the efforts of 
scholars by providing an expanding list of concept meanings- 
in-use. 
"~eneral information about activities can be received. 
from Giovanni Sartori, COCTA Chairman, Instituto di Scienza 
Politics, Universita degli Studi di Firenze, 48, via Laura, 
50121 Firenze, Italy, or Fred Riggs , COCI'A Secretary, Department 
of Political Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 
96822. 
American Journal of Computational Linguistics 
Microfiche 17 .- 47 
A REPORT ON THE TUTORIAL ON 
COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 
Institute for Semantics and Cognitive Studies 
Villa Heleneum, Lugano-Castagnola 
March 17-22, 1975 
SUZANNE HANDN 
Institute of Romance Philology, Odense university 
GREGERS KOCH 
Department of Computer Science, Copenhagen University 
GEORG SBNDERGAARD 
Ins ti tute of Scandinavian Language and Li tera ture 
Odense University 
The Institute, a branch of the Fondaeione dalle Molle, is 
carrying on research on arttfiaial intelligence (AI); about ten 
scholars devote themselves to the study of comhunication between 
man and machine, under the direction of Manfred Wettler. 
The tutorial was a week of lectures, seminars, and discus- 
siws conducted by the staff of the Institute, supplemented by 
evening discussions and presentations of their own results by 
participants. About 100 persons from Germany, Great Britain, 
Italy, Holland, Denmark, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Norway, 
Israel, Canada, and Japan attended. They were teachers, stu- 
dents, or researchers with various fields of interest and 
1.UTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 
background: linguist$cs, psychology, philosophy, automatic 
translation, computer science, social sciences, engineering., 
etc. The courses offered embraced a wide range of topics re- 
lated to semantics. Some of them were inrroductory courses, 
others were survey courses including the lecturers' own scien- 
tXic results and discussions of these in relation to recent 
research. This variety of fields taught at different levels 
was well suited to the audience. 
Below we will account for the lectures chronologically, 
describing at greater length those which were most relevant 
to us 
PARSING ENGLI S-H - Yorick Wilks 
A survey and comparison of some of the better known A1 
systems, this course began with certain fundamental concepts 
and general characteristics of relevance for all the-systems 
in question. A principal issue is parsing. Wilks defined it 
as "prooedural ascription of structures to sentences, where 
the structures are pot smtactic at all, but semantic. 
1 I 
Parsing may be done in two different ways: TOP-DOWN or BOTTOM- 
UP. Bottom up is the more straightforward way. The words of 
the sentence are listed and each word is replaced by its cate- 
gory Then pairs of category symbols (for instance Verb + NP) 
are rewritten by reversing the grammar's rewrite rules (Verb + 
NP --> VP) until the final sentence symbol S is reached. The 
lines of the derivation can then be considered as the parsing. 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS. 
Top-down parsing is the reverse procedure starting with the 
generations and continuing from left to right until the last 
word is reached. Another important pair of teahnical terms is 
BREADTH-FIRST and DEPTH-FIRST. Breadth-first is the parallel 
treatment of all possible alternative structures at a given 
time, none of which is given precedence. In depth-first pafses,, 
the akternative structures are treated sequentially. So far 
the description may apply to any kind of parsing, but it was 
Wilks's aim to demonstrate parsing procedures where the struc- 
tures are not syntactic but semantic. He described his own 
view of semantics as a version of the "meaning is procedures" 
attitude, i e. the procedures of its application give a pgrsed 
structure its s-ignificance. 
After mentioning what he called the "problem of natural 
lang~sge", by which he meant the problem of systsmatic ambiguity, 
Wilks gave a brief historical sketch of the first approaches to 
machine translation, the failure J£ which he put down to the 
ambiguity problem. 
Terry Winograd has proposed a distinction between "first" 
and "second" generation CI language systems. This distinction 
that seems no* to be wfdely acceptad also lies behind the 
survey 
below, where the systems of Winograd and Woods are considered 
first-generation and those of Simmons, Schank, Charniak, and Wilks 
belong to the second ge~eration. Winograd's well-known dialogue 
system SHRDLU operates in a closed world of colored blocks and 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIOhAL SEMANTICS 50 
pyrdmids. The gratnmatj of SHRDLU is not the conventional list 
of rules but s~ll subprograms that actually represent procedures 
for imposing the desired grammatical structure. In terms of: the 
notions set out earlier, Winograd's parsing is top-down and 
depth-first. After the syntactic parsing a number of "semantic 
specialistst1 attach semantic structvres to specific syntactic 
structures. These semantic structures can then be used by the 
deductive component of the system. Woods's system, tob, is 
considered first-generation, but both Woods and Winograd have 
argued that their systems are essentially equivalent, which is 
the reason why Wilks described only one of them in detail 
What the second-generation systems have in common is the 
assumption that understanding. systems-must be able to manipulate 
very complex linguistic abjects, or semantic structures, and that 
no simplistic approach to understanding language with computers 
rill work. A common Peature in connection with second-generation 
systems is what Rinsky (1974) calls a FRAME. It is described 
as a data-structure representing a stereotyped. situation and 
attempting to specify in advance what is going to be said, and 
h~w.the world encountered is going to be structured. 
Colby s system, too, is a dialogue system, by which an 
interview between a doctor and a paranoid patient called PARRY 
is carried out. The input text is segmented by a heuristic 
that breaks it at any occurrence of key words. Patterns are 
then matched with each word string segment. Stored in the same 
format as the patterns are rules expressing the conseque-xes 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS. 
fo~ the 2atient of detecting aggression and overfriendliness in 
the interviewer's questions and remarks. The matched patterns 
are then tied directly, or via these inference rules, to che 
response patterns which are generated. 
A very interesting as- 
pect of the PARRY system is the fact that the answers of the 
system cannot be distinguished from those of a human patient 
This fact suggests that many people on many occasions seem to 
understand the information they receive in the same way that 
PARRY does. 
Schank's is a rich system of semanti.: representation. It 
consists of the following three components: 
1. an ANALYZER of English, due to Riesbeck 
2. a SEMANTIC MEMORY Component, due to Rieger 
3. a GENERATOR OF ENGLISH, due to Goldman 
The aim of Schank's system is to provide a representation of 
meaning in terms of which different kinds of analysis and 
machine translation can be carried out; a representation, more- 
over, that is independent 0.f any particular language ,. and of 
syntax, and, indeed, of all traces of surface structure 
After a detailed description of Schank's so-called CONCEP- 
TUALIZATIONS, built up by conceptual categories, primitive acts, 
cases, etc., Wi-lks gave his own comments an Schank's system. 
Like that of Schank, Wilks's system has a uniform represen- 
tation, in the shape of structures and primitives, for the 
content of natural language. It is uniform in that the 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 52 
information that might conventionally be considered syntactic, 
semantic or factual is all represented within a single struc- 
ture of complex entities (called FORMULAS and PARAPLATES), all 
of which are in turn constructed from 80 primitive semantic 
entities. The formulas are tree structures of semantic primi- 
tives, stored in the dictionary of the system. The main element 
in any formula is its "head", i. e. the fundamental category to 
which the formula belongs. Sentences and their parts are repre- 
sented by the socalled TEMPLATE STRUCTURES, built up as networks 
of formulas. Templates always consist of an agent node, an 
action node, and an object node, and other nodes that may be 
governed by these. A formula or, say, the noun."drinkl' can 
be thought of as an entity at a template action node, selecting 
a liquid object, that is to say a formula with FLOW STUFF as 
its head, to be put at the object node of the template (sentence 
structure). This seeking is preferential in that formulas not 
satisfying a given requirement will be accepted, but only if 
nothing satsifying it can be found. The template ultimately 
established for a fragment of text is the one in which the most 
formulas have their preferences satisfied. This preference 
principle is of essential importance in connection with solving 
the many ambiguity problems in natural language texts. When 
the local. inferences have been done that set up the agentr 
action-object templates for fragments of input text, the system 
attempts to tie these templates together so as to provide an 
overall initial structure for the inaut called a CASE TIE. 
TUTORIAL ON CUMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 53 
Case ties are made with the aid of angther class of ordered 
structures called PARAPLATES, each of which is a string of 
functions that seek inside templates for information. The 
last step in the parsing is the inference procedure in which 
commonsense inference rules attempt by a simple strategy to 
construct the shortest possible chain of rule-linked template 
forms, on the principle of preference. 
The other main section of this course was a comparison of 
the parsing systeps described, including Charniak's system. 
This,comparison was based on the following principal aspects: 
LEVEL OF REPRESENTATION. At this point there qre two Op- 
posite views: that language can be realized or represented at 
different levels depending on the subject matter, or that the 
appropriate level of computation for inferences about natural 
language has to be to some degree reduced. The different level 
attitude is supported mainly by Colby and Charniak, while 
Schank and Wilks hold that a certain primitivization is necessary 
CENTRANTY OF INFORMATION. This aspect concerns the degree 
of specificity of the information required. Some systems, Iike 
Charniak's, are based on infomation highly specific to particu- 
lar situations, while the sorts of information central to 
Sohank's and Wilks's systems are of a much niore general nature, 
consisting mainly of partial assertions about hman wants, 
expectations, and so on. This problep of centrality is of 
great theoretecal importance, which Wflks illustrated by an 
example: 
A person might know nothing of a particular type of 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 54 
situation, for instance a birthday party, but could not for 
this reason be accused of not understanding the language. 
Yet, 
if he did not have available some very general inference such 
as for instance people gettihg sleepy at night, then it is 
possible that his failure to understand quite srmple sentences 
would cause observers to think that he did not know the lan- 
guage. Wilks went on: 
An interesting and difficult question that then 
arises is whether those who concentrate on central 
and less central areas of discourse could, in principle, 
weld their bodies of inference together in such a way 
as to create a wider system; whether, to put the matter 
another way, natural language is a whole that can be 
built up fr~m parts. 
PHENOMENOLOGICAL LEVEL. This is a question of degree of 
explicitness. Here Schank s system is distinctive. Wilks's 
opinion is that the amount of detailed inference that a system 
may perform must be llmited not to go beyond 'commpn sense'.. 
As an example he mentioned Schank's analysis of the action of 
eating (performed by moving the hands to the mcuth) and de- 
1 
scribed it as Ugoing too far from the meaning' of eating, 
whatever that may be, towards generally true information 
about the act which, if always inferred about all acts a£ 
eating, will carry the system unmanageably far. . . . There 
clearly is a danger of taking inferences to a phenomenological 
level beyond that of common sense," he concluded. 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 55 
DEGOUPLING. 
The issue is whether the actual parsing of 
text fnto an understanding system is essential.. Charniak and 
Minskr believe that this initial parsing can be decoupled. 
In Wilks's opinion this is not so, because he belkeves semantic 
analysis to be fundamental and because many of the later infe- 
rences would actually have to be done already, in order to have 
achieved the initial parsing. Also the problem of systematic 
ambiguity may be met much more efficiently with a system that 
does not decouple the parsing from rhe inference procedure. 
AVAILABILITY OF SURFACE STRUCTURE. In first and second 
generation systems it is generally accepted that word-sense is 
a. 
closely associated with the surface structure of the sentence, 
but Schank has made a point of the-nonavailability of the 
surface structure, on the grounds that an ideal representation 
should be totally independent of the input surface structnre 
and words. In connection with this claim of Schank's, Wilks 
pointed out two things: in many cases the order of the sentences 
in.a text is part of its surface structure, and this information 
should be available in some way. The other point conceined the 
form of =epresentation employed Wilks was not sure that a 
structure of primitlves. is sufficient for specifying and distin- 
guishing word senses adequateLy without transferring information 
specifically associated with the input word. 
APPLICATION. 
This concerned the way in which different sys- 
tems display, in the structures they manipulate, the actual 
procedures of application-of those structures to input text or 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 
dialogue Here the most distinctive. system is that of Wfnograd 
where the procedural notation, by its nature, tends to make 
clear the way in which the structures are applied. In hi6 view, 
as stated in some of his more recent writings, the control 
structure of an understanding program is itself of theoretical 
significance, for only with a control structure, he believes, 
can natural language programs of great size and complexity 
remain perspicuous. 
FORWARD INFERENCE. IS it neaessary to make massive for- 
ward inferences as one goes through a text., as Charniak and 
Schank do, or can one adopt some laziness hypothesis' about 
understanding and generate deeper inferences only qhen the 
system is unable to solve, say, a referential problem by more 
superficial methods? Charniak's argument is that, unless for- 
ward inferences are made during the analysis, the system will 
not in general be able to solve ambiguity or reference problems 
that arise later. Wilks had some theoretical difficulties. tn 
arguing against this view, and he admitted the difficulty of 
defining a degree of forward inference that aids the solution 
of later semantic problems without going int~ unnecessary depth 
THE JUSTIFICATION OF SYSTEMS. Finally Wilks tried to 
contrast. the different modes of justification implicitly 
appealed to in terms of the power of the inferential system 
employed, of the provision and"formalizatfon, of a system's 
actual performance, and of the linguistic or psychological. 
plausibility of the proffered system of representation. 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 57 
In his conclusion Wilks concentrated on those areas where 
the greatest problems within the field of A1 are found. 
The 
following needs seem to be the most pressing ones 
the need 
for a good memory model (stressed by Schank), the need for an 
extended procedural 
theory of texts and for a more sophisticated 
theory of reasons, causes, arid motives for use in a theory of 
understanding. Wilks ended his survey by stressing the fact 
that there is an AI paradigm of language understanding which 
embraces first and second generation approaches and goes back 
to a considerable amount of earlier work in computational 
linguistics 
INFERENCE AND KNOWLEDGE - Eugene Charniak 
Why do we make inferences? We do when we use language and 
when we decode the information conveyed by language, i . e. in the 
case of structural disambiguation as well as in word-sense dis- 
ambiguation, reference determination, question answering, trans- 
lation, smarizfng, etc., everywhere a thing not stated expli- 
citly has to be assumed. In so doing we are looking Eor a piece 
of information, for knowledge beyond the given text or situation 
Charniak poses five questions about how knowledge is used to 
make inferences: 
1 What concepts, and in what combinations, do we 
need to record our impressions of the wgrld? 
(semantic representation) 
2. Under what circurnstanees and why do we make 
inferences? (inference tr ipgering) 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 58 
3. How do we 1ocate.the needed information? (organization) 
1, 
4. Once located, how do we know how to vSe the information? 
(inference mechahism) 
5. @hat is the knowledge that we have of the world that 
enables us to understand language? (content) 
After this program had been put forth, Charniak presented ~ww 
partial answers to the questions the first order predicate 
calculus (FOPC) and the programing language PLANNER. 
FOPC consists of a+ language for expressing facts and rules 
for deriving new facts from old. The language consists of 
constants, variables, predicates, functions, logical connectives, 
and quantifiers. There are rules for inference. Charniak then 
outlined RESOLUTION THEOREM PROVING. It is a system for setting 
up proofs for deciding which rule of inference to use. Charniak 
proceeded to look at the five questions he had set forth and 
examined what answers. FOPC provides to them. He concluded that 
FOPC is primarily a theory ot inference mechanism,, but that it 
says very little about semantic representation. As FOPC dogs 
not tell how one is to locate the facts which are to be used 
to prove the derived result, theoretically we come up against 
a huge amount af possibilities when we combine the number of 
possible clauses.with the number of possible resolutions. This 
is called the "combinatorial explosion'" and is a serious problem 
in most inference systems, not only far FOPC. 
Charniak then examined the ~roblern of when we make infe- 
rences. There are two obvious occasions when we may make one: 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 
1. When a question is asked which requires an 
inference to be made (question time) 
2. When the system has been given edough input 
i-nformation to make the inference (read time) 
Although the inference making restricted to question time would 
seem to be more ,economical since inference.is done only when we 
. - -- -- -- -< -- 
-_ _- 
- - 
- -. 
must, in oraer to answer the system user's question', there is 
some ovide~ca that inference is done at reading time (e.g. psy- 
ch~logical experiments on recall of texts). Furthermore, it is 
not possible to do word sense or steuctural disambiguation. 
withovt making inferenc-es. Wilks makes a distincti~n between 
'broblem occasioned" and "nonproblem occasioned" inference. A 
typical example of the latter is given in -"Janet shook ner 
piggy-bank. There was no sound.. " We assurnel that there is 
nothing In the piggy-bank although the problem has not yet 
arisen in the story. Charniak believes that to do question 
answering on complex stories the system must perform nonproblem 
occasioned inference. ne glves examples rrom children's stories 
where persons lie about things and where the system has to.guess 
why the person is lying 
An alternative to FOPC is to use the natural properties 
of some programming language to make inferences. 
Bertram 
Raphael (1968) did this .ih the system SIR when he used LISP to 
construce a data base. Another way is making the programing 
languagesmore suited to the needs of inference making. Such 
a system has t&rl designed but not implemented: PLANNER 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 60 
(Hewi'tt 1969) In this system we are able to pick up an 
assertion by knowing parts of it If no appropriate assertion 
can be made, we can try to have theorems (i.e. programs) 
investigated An antecedent theorem is one where we are given 
the antecedent and'we assert the consequent, while with a con- 
sequent theorem we are asked to p-row the coasequen-t and we 
try to find the antecedent. PLANNER has the ability to choose 
which theorems to use on the basis of their patterns. This is 
called PATTERN DIRECTED INVOCATION. Furthermore, the system 
can back up to see if any earlier choices night be changed. 
This feature is somewhat controversial, since it might encourage 
the construcLi0n of programs which depend on blind search. 
PLANNER'S advantage over FOPC is that it offers several built-in 
organizational features, tne primary one being pattern directed 
invocation. A disadvantage about it as theory of knowledge and 
inference is thar: it is too vague Charniak (197.2-) illustrates 
the pros and cons of PLANNER using children's stories. Given 
a piece of simple narration, the system should be able to 
answer reasonable quegtions about it. Charniak Stresses the 
need for looking ahead in thg story to make inferences For 
this he uses. an anteceden~ theorem or a "demon". The routines 
which are available to set up demons he calls ensE ROUTINES. 
In addition- he makes use BOOKKEEPING for updating the as- 
sertions and of Consequent theorems pealled FACTFI-NDERS: the 
basic idea behind faetfinders is that they are used to establish 
facts whieh-are'not too important so that we do not want to 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL .SEMANTICS 
nssert thew and store them in the data base.. The main advan- 
tage of this system is that it provides a good theory of 
srganization. It states in particular that "given a particular 
assertion. the way we find those facts which we should use to 
nake inferences from the assertion is to 'look in two places-. 
first the base routine for assertions of that form, & second 
for any demons.which happen to have been activated which are 
looking for assertions of that ford"' Charniak concluded his 
lectures by examining the recent works of three scholars: 
1. McDermott ' s system TOPLE (1.974) is rnalnly concerned 
with the problem of 'beliefs, describing a simple world con- 
sisting of a monkey and an experimenter in a single room. The 
program listens to a present-tense account of what is happening 
in the zoom; it tries to understand why things happen and what 
can be sxpected to happen as the story poas on. It tells us at 
t.he end of every sentence what new assertions it has assumed 
as a rbesult of hearing. 
TOPLE's restrictions are the following: 
it does not answer questibns, it does not handle actual natural 
language but rather a formal-looking input language. On the 
otrrer hand, it tries to visualize concretely a situation. It 
is based on a "multiple wo.rld structure" 
2. Rieger (1974) is the first to have attempted to use 
Schank's conceptual dependency theory within a theory af infe- 
rence and knowledge. Rieger!~ program has as its main purpose 
tc make reasonable inferences from the input it is given. The 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 62 
input is expressed in a suitable formalism, i.e. conceptual de- 
pendency representation. It is also designed to understand 
stories, engage in dialogues, figure out references and word- 
sense ambiguity, answer questions about the way the world 
normally is 
3. Minsky ' s (1974) frames are reinterpreted by Charniak 
as "a collect-ion or questions to be asked about a hypothetical 
situation. Frames specify issues to be raised and methods to 
be used in dealing with them. 
It 
Charniak also gave a double lecturn on SYNTAX IN LINGUISTICS. 
This was an introduction to generative grammar for those who had 
not had a. formal course in linguistics. 
MEMORY MODELS - Greg W- Scraqg. 
After introducing SEMANTIC NETS, Scragg discussed their 
most important properties and compared several systems indlud- 
ing some with partial semantic nets, some with partially 
quantitied semantic nets, some with fully quantified semanttc 
nets, and some with executable semantic nets. 
He compared semantic net representations and predicate 
calculus tepresentations. 
Attempts to construct proofs in the predicate calculus will 
show the difficulty CXE sklecting the relevant infqrrnation for 
making a particular deduction from a specif-ic fact. The tech- 
niques currently employed in theborem proving programs are even 
less efficient,a.t selecting the most relevant material. 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 
In comparison 3f predicate calculu-s and semantic nets, 
most problems center around the question of quantification. 
How does one quantify relations in a semantic net? Scragg 
mentions three different approaches. 
1. There are six possible quan~~ficatio~s fur a two-place 
predicate Pxy 
vxv yPxy , ZxVyPxy , 3yVxPxy, Vz3yPxy, *VyIIxPxy, 3?$3yPxy 
In Scragg (1973) the claim is made that #the first three forms 
are so rare in everyaay (nonscientif?~) s-ituations that they 
may be ignored. The rematning ones may be distinguished with 
a type-token flag. 
2. palme (1973) tries to represent quantification by 
introducing a third quantifier, ITS (meanins spme-thing like the 
possessive pronoun "its"). With three quantifiers, he now cam 
define six separate relations for each pwvious relation: 
Quantifying with FOR-ALL or EXISTS on the Left and FOR-ALL., 
EXISTS, or ITS on the r-ight of the old relation. One disadvan- 
tage of this is that he potentially has six times as many 
relations to work with and has to keep erack of the relationships 
between each of the six versions of the same-relation. 
3. Schubert- (1975) treats quantifiers in a different way. 
He first puts the predicate calculus representation of the 
statement into SKOLEM FORM (a form which has no existential 
quantifiers and with all- universal quantlfiers outside 05 the 
body of the express-ion), 
Any node that is existentially 
TUTORItAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 64 
quantified but dependent an a universally quantified node is 
connected to that governing node. An event is asserred if and 
only if there is no arrow pointing to that node in the diagram. 
The semantic net structures here tend to become very complex. 
~---~~"--""--------"----"""""i.iiiiii"iiiiiiiii" 1 .., a"". - . .. ." .... .- . -1 - I - - . . - ---- .. .L . . . . . --dl". .----- 
It is not clear that any of the three approaches give 
really practical (or int~~tively satisfying) results. 
What we need at present is a theory of more conplex actions. 
For example, how do we link the descriptions of the various 
substeps of the pro.cess of cake making into a single desciiption 
of the overall action of making a cake? 
There arb those who claim that all knowledge is stored in 
the form of procedures and there are those who clraim that it is 
stored as a collection of facts. 
Scragg (1974; see also Nonuan 1973 and Norman et a1 1975) 
takes an intermediate approach by making use of ambiguous (data 
or procedure) representat-ions to store information about actions. 
The system knows how to simulate various human actions-such as 
toasting bread, making spaghetti sr cleaning up the kitchen. 
The information ab~ut how to perform these siinulatibns is: 
stored as procedures. However, these procedures can be used 
as data by other parts of the system to answer such questicms. 
as "'HOW do you make a ham and cheese sandwtich?"., 
"How many 
utensils do you use if you make a mushroom omelette?" or 
"Why did Don use a knife?" 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 
SEMANT I CS I'N LI NGU I ST I CS 
SEMANTIC MARKERS AND SELECTIONAL RESTRICTIONS. Phillip 
Hayes discussed in detail the influential paper by Katz and 
Fodor (1963). He concluded that their semantic theory is n0.t 
qufte adeouate even for the purely linguistic system they try 
to outline.  everth he less, it can be a useful component of an 
A1 theory of natural language comprehension. 
GENERAT~IVE SEMANTICS. Margaret King outlined the defining 
characteristics.of this theory and then concentrated on its 
relationship with AI. As a conclusion, she stated that the 
definition of grammar logically should be extended to embrace 
not only wellformedness and semantic acceptability but also all 
possible aspects of the context of use of a sentence. This is 
contradictory to the traditional view of grammar-understood aF 
the sole means of determin'ing which sentences are grammatical 
for the majority of speakers of the standard form oE the 
language. 
CASE GRAMMAR. Wolfgang Samlowski snrv-eyed- Fillmore's 
theory with special reference to Its -intLuence on American 
linguistic theories of semantics and on leading researchers 
within AI. 
The survey consisted of a presentation of case 
grammar, an examinatlon of some explicit and implicit traces 
lett in A1 by the Case grammar theory, and a demonstration of 
some of the complications that the acceptqnnre of the case 
gradrmar theory by language-understanding researchers would. cause 
TUTURIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 
DIVERSE 
PHILOSOPHY of= LANGUAGE. Yorick Wilks, in a double lec- 
ture, compared and contrasted modern philosophy with relation 
to linguistics, in particular systems of formal logic, repre- 
sented by the works of Ludwig Wittgenstein and Richard Montague. 
The survey had special reference to the application of such 
systems of formal logic to the preparation of language under- 
stanalng system-s. 
PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE AND MEMORY.: Walter Bischof gave a 
selective historical survey of the prevailing concepts in the 
field: association, organization a£ data, Gestalt, meaningful- 
ness of data, temporal structure of memory, reaction-time 
paradigm to investigate semantic memory and the network models 
of representation as proposed by C.ol'15ns and Quillian (1969) 
Recent work based on the same assumption has shown that the 
structure of semantic memory is not quite the logical, bier.- 
archical and economical structure proposed by Collins and 
Quillian. Bischof gave a list of possible relationships between 
artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology and concluded 
that these two disciplines have Little to say to each other be- 
cause of their different aims and because the available experi- 
mental tools proposed by psychology are too poor. 
LISP. Margaret King taught an "0-level" course and Philip 
Hayes a more advanced introductory course, to this programming 
language, which is being used widely by AT researchers, in its 
original form or in some of its extensions (CONNIVER, PLANNER). 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 67 
TUTORIAL GROUPS. Work consisted of discussions between 
participants in smaJler groups and one or two of the lecturers 
Some evenifig lectures were given by the participants. 
These 
included H. Harrell, R. Giintermann, and G. Zifonun, who pre- 
sented ISLIB ('information System on a Linguistic Base), a sys- 
tem for answerifig questions to an input in restricted German, 
carried out at-.the Institut-fUf aeutsche Sprache at Mannheim. 
A. McKinnon 3f McGill University, Montreal. discussed his work 
on the Kierkegaard indices. Some lectures caused vivid dis- 
cussibn. For example that of V. V. Raskin, Hebrew University, 
Jerusalem-, advocated corpus dependent semantic.models and re- 
commended his own "f,estric~ed sublanguages" 
APPRECIATION 
Altogether, tne tutorial in Lugana was very inspiring and 
profitable for the participants. It was well organized and 
gave good opportunity for discussions. The teachers in the 
tutorial being familiar with each other's work succeeded in 
giving a comprehensive view on the topic of computational 
semantics. some or us, .however, felt a need for more precise 
definttions of standard notions, this being a very acute prob- 
lem in view-of the heterogeneity of the participants' backgrounds. 
We are, however, aware that this is an inherent and recurring 
problem at such gatherings, where people with different qualifi- 
cations meet to dis-cuss comon problems We would like to ex- 
press the wish tha-t the Fondazione dalle Molle will be able to 
arrange more tutorials of a similar kind in the future. 
TUTORIAL ON COMPUTATIONAL SEMANTICS 
"FORMULAE" IN COHERENT TEXT : 
LINGUISTIC RELEVANCE OF SYMBOLIC INSERTIONS 
Respunsa Project 
Bar-Ilan Universi ty 
Ramat-Gan, Israel 
Some difficulties in automatic analysis ~nd transla- 
tion bound to symbolic insertions in mathematical texts are 
discussed. Rules dealins with these difficulties are pro- 
posed, These rules are based on the use of the whole text 
of the a~Cicle incorporating a formula. 
For satisfactory automatic analysis of texts, it is 
necessary to provide in the dictionary exhaustive serrianti- 
cal Information ascribed to its entries. But this infor- 
mation can appear to be insufficient in cases where the 
meaning of! linauistic elements is ascribed to their occur- 
rences by the very text in whlch they. are encountered 
cf . I or example, pronouns. 
The other example is provided by symbolic insertions 
in mathematical texts, which we shall call 'If ormulaeN . 
So not only 'a= b , 'X 2 Y' etc., but also 
Ox* @ @ and so on are nforrnulaew. 
Mathematical formula resembles pronouns in one respect: 
it is semantically *voidqt being out of context. 
For example, @G9 may be *setH, "~ubset*, N~rouplt , 
%peratorn, Mfunctim*, "stringw, *elementu, 9qrule of 
grammarH, eto. 
The meaning is ascribed ta a formula by the context. 
There are a few types of fo~mulae with fixed meanings. 
F'or example, *dx/dyf Is @derlVatlve8. But this sltb- 
tion 1s not typical. 
One of the basic usages of formulae conSist's of naming 
by formula A some individual object a belonging to 
some class b of objects such that there exists some noun 
block Cl(A) that names b. 
For example, i'n the expression 'set R' the formula 
*R' names some individual set belonging to the class of 
%etsN-. Noun block @seta (consisting in this case- of a 
single -noun) names this class. 
So here 
c~(R) = *sete. 
Consider some difficultAes arising in translation 
because of the absence in a source sentence of the Cl(f) 
for a formula E. 
Let US try to translate from, Engllcsh-to 'Russian the 
sentence 
n\yn -- 
Wcirst find an xment r of Rv. (1) 
(Previous surface syntactical analysis is, assumed, its 
results being represented in dependency-tr-ee form). 
Syntactically, this sentence (is very simple, but even 
an experienced "humanq* interpreter would not be able to 
properly understadd this expression and translate it. 
h Russian. the element corresponding to the English 
preposition ?ofv is, generally, the grammatical meaning 
wgenltivell. We can ascribe this meaning to the formula 
*Rn [.governed by the prep~sitiorr 'of'): 
--- 
*We first find element r R + genitive'. 
(Syntactical links are also shown). 
At ^this point, the process of translation is suspendea 
because of the fact that in Russian two non-coordinate 
formulae cannot depend on the same now. 
Similar examples are provicted by other languages:. 
German : In jeder Umgebung V von o X* . 
A human interpreter does not usually hesitate to 
properly translate such expressions only because he under- 
stmnds their meaning from a general background or vast 
context. We can point out some characteristic construe-- 
tions in mathematical texts that are sufficient as con- 
texts in such cases. Consider, for example, such a con- 
text.(i.e. an expression From the same text): 
'Let R be a ring with a unity I*. (2 
Ear expression (I), and let us formulate.;~very simple 
rules t 
*Let f bea N- Cl(f) = *Ne; (R 
1 
Here f is some flformulan, N - a noun block, 
means syntactical irnlr, - reads: 'if . . . 
then*, and icllb means substitutability. 
With the aid of the raes R and R we can 
1 2 
obtain from (1) and (2) the following expressions 
@'-i\ 
We first find an elect 
r 
/"4/3, 
'of ring R 
which is easily translatable kr;, Russian: 
(The relevant syntacticaI links are shown; the two 
"f ormulaeN depend on different nouns ) . 
Of course, 'ri'ng R* Is not substitutable for R 
in the expression 'ring R' 
The expression 
*Components x are nonnegative * 
i ' 
w.ith the aid of the re R 
3' 
provides us O1(xi) and 
helps to translate the expression: 
*A unique value s of x- @ 
i 
Cf. also the contexts: 
'Lgespaoe topolopique Ye and 
mEln topoqener Ram X* 
for the French and German examples abqve, 
Let us now try to trans1at.e to Russian, the fol- 
lowing expressions: 
'H is cyclic' (3); 'A smallest k* (4). 
A predicative adjective in Russian must be put 
In grammatical agreement With the subject of the seri- 
tence; an attributive adjective - with the qoverning 
noun. That Is, the Russian adjectives for cyclicp In 
(3) and for *smallestm in (4) mus* asree in gender 
75 
with 'H' and *kt correspondingly. It is clear that the 
inf brmation about the gender of a Itf omulafl can be pro- 
yided by, Cl(f). Having defined. Cl(H) = 'matrixw for 
wh1chb..t;he translation 
'KATRXTSAw 
is. remlnine, we receive for (3) the translation 
There exist numerous other ex,pre.ssions for which the 
finding of Cl(f) is very desirable, for example: 
We deflne 3 and k by j = m + n; k = m - no. (5) 
The "direct* translation of (5) to Russian: 
'Qpredeltm j i k putjorn j = m + n; k = m - nb 
is not smooth enough; the translation: 
'Opredelim J i k s pomosh ju so~tn~shenij 
3 =m + n; k -= m - n*, 
(*We ikefine j and k by correspondences j = m + n; 
k = m - n") is much better. 
~l(f] can be sometimes defined from the very formula 
f. For example, 'a = b' is nequalityl,, ,, ,*a ) b" fs 
"inequalityqt, and so on. Somet%mns t-he .he"meming18 of a 
formula f ban be derived from words syntactically linked 
to this formula or from a more complex fo2niula F incor- 
prating f. 
For example, from the e2presSion 
we can derive that T is a wtransformatianw and that 
A and @BW are wsetsM. From the expression 
we can derive that 'B' is a "setu and that 'ap is an 
'Subset of A' 
A@ is a *.setN. In 
'Differentiation (.or : integration.') with 
respect to xv, 'x' IS a l%arlabldN, and so on. 
Cl(f) for a formula f can be sometimes a more 
or less bulky expression consisting of a noun with words 
depending on the noun directly or Indirectly. 
'Tous les ensembles Li d indices lnferieurs 
a un nombre donne IS@ (c~(L~) is underlined). 
In this case we can reduce C1(L ) to only one word 
i 
*ensembles*. But in rare cases such reduction will pro- 
duce absolutely inadequate translations, 
Example t 
In the expression 
'Pour les fonctlons x(t) de Lg 
with a context 
,La partie cornwe L de tous les ensembles Li ' 
(Cl(L) is underlined), 
we cannot reduce C1(,L) to only one word upartlee, which 
Is its syntactical governor, 
'St is very difficult to formulate a general Pule ta 
discriminate between cases of typee (6) and (7). 
The expression. (7) om be translated using a 
synonym for C~(L), for example. 'ensemble', having in 
mind that the intersection of several sets is also a 
set. The computability of such synonyms can, of course, 
be questioned, 
Now we shall consider some proDlems arising in trans- 
lation of Russian mathematical texts into European and 
other languages. 
The construction 
in Russian has two syntactical meanings, 
(a) appositive:, 
(b) genitive:' 
The cause of thls difficulty is the omission of 
Cl(f) in r;ne surfaoe syntactical structure of some 
Russian sentences: 
lpodmnozhestvo mnozhestva Bv- 'podrnozhestvo Bp 
"SubseT (of 1 set B" "Subset (of) Bn. 
In such cases me qenitive link is rare (5% of 
n 
all occurrences of constructions of type N f, i.em 
several-dozen occurrences in a mathematical article). 
The task of automatic cho1c.e here is very difficult. It 
was solved only partially. We can ch~ose from the text 
of an article about 70% of all occurrences of the appo- 
sitive links and also sowe occurrences of geni't-ive 
links, The rest of occurrences remain ambiguous. 
The proposed procedures were checked in exhausting 
manual experiments, hue their aaaptation for computer is 
quite feasible. 
Choice of appositive links 
Let us consider the following empirically stated 
ax h oms val id : 
(A ) In the same Russian text every two different 
1 
occurrences of t.he same expsre,ssion of type 
. 
- 
N f are or both appositive or both 
So, if we have s-ucceeded in clarifying the meaning of a 
link in one occurreme of a construction, we can ascribe 
this meaning to every occurrence of the same construction. 
(A~) 
In a.construction of the type 
where fl and f2 are two syntactt;cally co- 
_T 
~rdinate formulae, the two links are both 
appositive or both qenitive. 
For example, havirlg a construction 
("sets A and BH or '@sets of and 13") 
and knowing that in 
'mnozhesf va Am 
the link is appositiye, we can consider the link in 
*mnozhestva Be 
to also be appositive (1.e. "sets A and B"). 
(A ) Let us call constructions of the type 
3 
f jest' N* 
and 
*oboznachim N cherez f* 
(I*~et us desiqnate N by f") 
introductory construotions. Every introductory construc- 
tion ascr-ibes the meanizg to the formula which It intro- 
duces. 
n 
In every construc,ti.on N f, for which m. lntro- 
ductory construction exists in the same text. the 
(A ) Sometimes the meaning is ascribed to a formu- 
4 
la without any introductory con.struction. 
The link in an occurrence r of a construction 
n 
oft eN fLf the expression 
f has not occurred in the text berore. r,. 
In this case the formu3.a f must also not occur before 
r as any coherent part (subformula) of some other formula 
F, Because t-Re meaning can be ascribed to a formula f by 
its place In F tsee above). Sut to use the distinction 
between a coherent and a non-coherent part of a formula 
(Cf. 'a + b' in '(a + b)/d8 and in 'ca +bd9), we need 
a calculus of' all mathematical symbolic notations, of which 
only small portions exist (Cf. arithmetic expresssionS 0f 
prograhming languages ) . Becaus-e of this Ah was formu1.a- 
ted in the above form). 
(A ) Sometimes there occur in mathematical texts 
5 
expressions where verbal and symbolic parts are interwoven 
so that irl syntactic analysis a s-ymbolic insertion appears 
not as a single unit but as a complex construction having 
its own struct'ure. Some parts of tr formula can have links 
of their om wish the external verbal parts of the sen- 
tence. 
Examples : 
(tmFunotion L H(I1)" ). 
He re * is the predicate of .the sentence, 'Funs- 
tidn9 is iks subject and CH(R)* - an indi~ect object, 
The sentence Can be read as' 'F.unction L belon~s to 
H(EI)'* 
( "For every 1 6 B".. . ) 
Here is anmattribute *of 1 and can be read as 
'belonging to'. 
3. 'funktsija LE H(R) opredeljajetsjam..,. 
"Function LO H(R) is defined by*... ) 
Here @ H(R) @ is an attribute of *Function9, and @t9 is 
an apposition modif-ying the same word. But the whole 
string L E H(R) can also be corlsidered an apposition 
modifying the word 'functioh' . So, we can formulate a rule: 
m 
If the link in some construction of the type N -A f Is 
apposiCt;'ve, then the link of the same N with the formula 
- 
f R-- f * . where R is one of the ~ymbols~,*,<,&~~,,3.~ 
a.c,C.f.% or 3. and f! is a (coherent) part of the 
formula f R f' Ls also appositive. 
The inverse also holds true. 
Using the axioms A1 to A5 cyclicly , we receive 
the 70% mentioned above. 
Example : 
Let us assume that the following Russi.an expresslions 
belong to the same mathematical text (and the prelimi- 
nary syntactical analysis has already been done): 
(I) @Oboenachim etu tsepochku cherea A' 
("Let us designate thsiS string by A" ) ; 
(2) 'tsepochki A i B = D@ 
("strings. A and B = p"? Strlngs of A and 
B = D"?); 
(3) tsepochki B 1 F' 
("strings B and Fw? "Strings of 3 and F"?); 
(4) tsepochka Fg 
("string Fg'? "Stride; of Fw?) 
Using axioms 
A 39 A=, A29 kg* A19 Az and A1 
we 
can ascribe the meaning "appositive" to the link in (4). 
Assuming that In a text expressions (2), 3 and 
(4) are present, and thar; the occurrence of @ in (4) 1s 
the f1rs.t; occurrence of this formula, we Can ascri3e to the 
1 ink 
'tsepachkl A' 
in (2) 
the meaning "appositive" with the aid of axioms A4, 
A1 
A, A5 and A2 . 
So, we receive for expressio2s (3) to (4) translations: 
"strings -A and B = DM; *stxings B and FH ; *string F* 
It is worthwhile to mention that the same formula 
may occur in a text being linked appositively to several 
d%ffe,rent noms, for example, 
and 'mno~oobrazi je it (l'manlfold a R* ) . 
-f 
Different N in expressions of the type N 
(with the same f) can r'ef'er to each other as genus and 
species or can name obdects for which the fact of their 
identlty has been proven in the text. Using tho axiom A4 
we can (very rarely) make an error. An error can occur in 
a case where the f~rmula has the meaning specified once 
and for all independently from the text. So, wit,haut any 
previous definition of the meaning in an introductory con- 
struction or in a construction wftn tne apposftive link, a 
formula can at once be linked ~enit1vel.y to a noun. 
This situation is not typical in mathematical 
texts, Ih thls case we have a hieroqlyphio word (cf. '&', 
@$' in common Enqlish) and not a freely chosen notation. 
Such a word must be storea in the dictionary (wlth the 
84 
epecific meaning ascribed to it). For example, 'dx/dyW is 
'derivativeq. 
Using Cl (f ) in every case of occurrence of e-yery 
formula, authors of mathematical cexts would nake the above 
procedures unnecessary. The problem qf standardizing the 
lanquage of scientifFc publications is not new, and in 
many cases some format of texts is prescribed. 
The problem of choos-ing occurrences of qenitive 
links in constructlons of the type N- f from the set 
of all occurrences af such constructions in mathematical 
texts and, also, of choosinq the only semantically relevant 
governor for a formmla which has several formally equiva- 
lent ones Is considered in (1). The qeneral procedure 
for resolving ambiguities in surface syntactical arialysis 
using broad context Is proposed in (2 ). 
All you ever wanted 
to know about 
afips constituent societies 
(but could never find. 
in one place!) 
American 
Federation of 
Information 
Processing 
Societies. Inc. 
210 Summit Avenue 
Montvale 
New Jersey 07645 
2M 391-9810 
AFIPS CONSTITUENT SOCIETIES 
Contents. 
The Arnedcan Federation of lnformafion Pro- 
cessing Societies acts on behalf of 15 national 
organizati~ns engaged in the &sigh and/or 
application of computers and information pro- 
cessing systems. These societies range in areas 
of interest from the highest degree of techno- 
logy in softwate and hardware to accounting 
and education, and they represent a tdtal mem- 
berains of U&aaO,--- .- 
Inherent in the relationship between AFfPS and 
its Constituent Societies are the aammon goals 
of promoting understanding between societies 
and the genaral public. 
This brochure provides a short overview of each 
societ& its goals, membership requirements, 
aatlvitles and publications. Every individual so- 
ciety has more extensive informatlon available 
for you, should you be rnterested in learning 
further about its specific areas of Intarest and 
expertise. 
Page: 
1. Introduction 
5. American lnstitute of Aeronautics 
and Astronautics 
6. American lnstitute of Certified Public Accountants, 
7. American Society for Information Science 
8. American Statisticai Assobiation 
9. Association far Computational Linguisttcs 
lo. Association for Computing Machinew 
1 Association for Educational Data Systems 
Data Processing Management Associatioh 
lEEE Computer Sbciety 
lnstitute of Internal Auditors 
Instrument Society of America 
Society for Computer Simulation 
Society for lndustrral and Applied Mathematics 
Society for lhformation Display 
Spedjal L ibclaries Association 
About AFIPS 
AFIPS CONSTITUENT SOCIETIES 
American Institute of Aeronautics 
and Astronautics (AIAA) 
Purpose 
AlAA Is an organization of people who have a corn- 
mon intefest in space, the atmosphere and the sea. 
They see in the exploitation of these elements an 
opportunity to expand and enrich human life in count- 
less ways and have set themselves to the study of the 
physical characteristits of these elements and to the 
develo~ment of machinery that will bring them more 
fully to humanvy's service, AlAA s objective is to the 
advancement of the' profession and the individual ih 
these pursuits. 
Membership Requirements 
All persons engaged in the profesbional practice of 
{hearts, sciences or technology of aeronautics, astro- 
nautics or hydronautics are eligible for,memberskip 
in AIAA: Others whuae work cantributes to the ad- 
vancement of these fields are also eligible. 
Activities 
Each year AlAA sponsors or co-sponsors from 25 to 
30 national meetings in different parts of the country 
at which AlAA members have an opportunity to hear, 
present and d~scuss pape'rs of importance to the ad- 
vancement of aerospace science and engineering 
Many of the meetings include aerospace exhibits and 
field trips to nearby aerospace plants and laboratories. 
Publications 
Astronautics and Aeronautics 
AlAA Bulletin 
AlAA Journal 
Journal of Aircratf 
Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 
Journal of Hydronautics 
Student Journal 
Reference Publications as warranted. 
Dues 
Members undei 30 ........................... $34 00 
Members 31 and aver .............. -.~~~ . 35.00 
Student ..,,..,.. .............. ,... .......................... .7.00 
Publications are extra, 
For Further Intormetion Contact: 
Dr. Jerry Grey 
American InstiFiute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 
1290 Sjxth Avenue 
NeWYbrk, N. Y. 10019 
American lnstitute of 
Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) 
Purpose 
The American Institute of Certified Public Accoun- 
tants is the national professional association pf CPA s. 
The many activrties of the Institute are Uesigned to 
help member9 improve the quality of their professional 
services. the effectiveness with which they manage 
their practices. and their status as C;PA1s In the com- 
munities they serve. The Institute serves lo. unite the 
profession and to maintajn the staddards OF the CPA 
qualification aid the practice of accounting in the 
United States. 
Membership Requirements 
An applicant must be a-certified Public Accountant 
and be enga8ed in work teiated to accounting. Inte~ 
national Aseociate memberships are also available. 
ActiGi ties 
The Institute r annual meetings and conferences are 
a~med at keeping professional Issues and problems 
before its members. The Institute prepares and grades 
ihe CPA examination used thrbughout the United 
States and supports the Financial Accounting Stand- 
ards Board which sets accounting standards. Other 
activities are promulgatron of auditlng standards, 
creation and administration of continujhg education 
courses and programs, establishment ef rules of pro- 
fessional conduct and conducting rnves ligations in 
connection with alleged violabions, maintenance of 3 
Washington: D.C. office for haison with the Internal 
Revenue Service. Securities and Exchange Cornmls- 
sion, and other federal agencies, monitoring of stgte 
legislation pertaining to CPA's, operatlon of an on- 
I~ne, real-time computer-based ~nforrnation retrieval 
system,. and research into accounting, auditing and 
computer subject areas. " 
Publications 
The Journal of Accountancy - Monthly 
The Tax Adviser - Monthly 
The CPA Letter - Semimonthly 
Special techntcql publ~cations,.books, and pam~hlets. 
Dues 
Established by the Councll, dues aje levied on a grad- 
uatedscale, according to longevity as a CPA, pos~tion 
in practice. and occupationaJ status. 
For Further Information Contact: 
Donald L. Adams 
American lnstithte of Certified Public Accountants 
121 1 Avenue of the Americas 
New York, New York 10038 
CONSTITUENT 
SOCXETIES 
American Society for 
lnfdrrnation Sc~mce (ASIS) 
Purpase 
The AMerican Society for Information Science is a 
nonprofit national and professional association organ- 
ized for scientific, literary. and educational purposes 
and dUicate4.to.the creation, organization. d~ssemi- 
nalicn. and appncalion :of knowledge concerning in- 
formation ana its Iransrer.:ASIS is dedicated to the 
imp~ovtment of the information-transfer process 
through research, development,. application gnd edu- 
catjon. The Society acts as a bridge between research 
and developq-ient and the requirements of d~vetse 
types of information systems. ASlS provldes a forum 
for the discussipn, publication and critical analysis of 
work deal~ng wUh the theory and practice of all ele- 
ments involved in the cornmunicat~on of information. 
Membership Requirements 
Regular membership in ASIS-is open to any in-ter- 
ested person who applies for membership and pays 
the prescribed dlles, No formal educational quallfl- 
cations for membership exist, Student memberships 
are available tor a period of'not more than three years 
to sersdns regylarly enrolled at a college or un~versity 
'9 
In one or mom-courses ~f training or study for whiCh 
degree credits are given in the fblds of documenta- 
tion. library science or in'formation scienee. Institu- 
tufional memberships are.also available. 
Activities 
The Annual meeting of the Soc~ety. usually held In 
October. provides a .focal point for the discussion oi 
formal papers and an Opportunity for informal talks 
with people of diverse ihterests. The Society alqo con- 
ducts a mid-year meeting. usually in May; part~cipates 
in programs of other professional societies: and, is an 
active partidpant in the National Computer Confer- 
ence. AStS operates a member. placement service 
'The Soc~ety has 24 major regianal. local chapters 
throughout the U.S., Canada and Europe. 
Publications 
Proceedings of the ASlS - Annual 
Journal of the ASlS - Bimonthly 
Annual Review of Information Sc'ience and 
Technology - Annual 
bulletin of the ASIS- 10 times a vear 
DWS 
Regular .............................................................. $ 35.00 
Student .............................................................. 10.00 
Institutianal Sponsor ..........-........-..-....-..--.._.._.._. 25030 
For Further IMormation Contact:, 
Robert (Skip) McAfee, Jr.. 
American Society for Information Science 
1155 16th St., N.W., Sulle,PIO 
Wesh'ington, D.C. 20036' 
American Statistical bssociation (ASA) 
'Jurpqse 
3uoting from the Cqnstitution of the ASA, "The objec- 
lives of the American Statistical Association, a non- 
srofrt organi'ratlon, .shall be to fester. In the broadest 
nanner, stat~stics and its applications, to promote 
~nity and eifectiveness o,f Bffort among all concerned 
with statistical problems, end to increase the contri- 
bution of stAtistics to human welfare." 
The Association is composed of persons interested. in 
statMics, applied or theoretical. Through the Asso- 
ciation, members mutually help each other w~th the 
exchange of professional Knowleam and tho report- 
ing of new developments,,insuring twit stat~stlcal tech- 
niques 'discovered in one field are. made kdown to 
workers in'others, 
Membership Requirement5 
There are several tyges of memberships available in 
ASA, including Regular and Institutignal. Contact 
ASA*Headsuart&s for further information on qualifi- 
cations tor membels hip. 
Activities 
The annual meeting of the Association 'IS h,eld in 
August, typically in conjunction with annual meetings 
of other scientific societies-qoncerned dtth statistical 
practice. In addition. Ibwl rnaetkgs ar0 held by the 
ASA chapters and regional meetings are arranged 
when desired within the geographical districts into 
which the Association 'is divided. Since these meet- 
ings are smaller'th'an the annual meetings, they fur- 
ther opportunrties for still more intimate discussion 
on statistical matters of local or regional interest. 
Publications 
The Jaurnal of the American Statistical Associat~on - 
Quarterly 
The American Statisticlans- Quarterly 
Newsletter - Tentimes yearly 
fechmmetrics - Qua-ifew 
Proceedinns - Annual 
----- 
................ ................................... ~~$ular &.. $20,00 
Student (Full-time) ................................. ...,....... 9.00 
For Further lnformation Contact: 
Fred Leone 
American Statistical Association 
806 15th St., N.W 
Washington, D.C. 20005' 
AFTPS CONSTZTUEN,T S JCI ETIES 
Assoc~at~on for Computatlcrnal 
Linguistics (ACL) 
Purpose 
The Associatlon lor Computational l,inguistics $was 
founded in 962 by am rod^ bf researchefs wno shared 
a corhmon rnterest inmroad class of problems ihvolv- 
ing both languages ana computation. Their purposes 
were:l(l) to promote research and development activi- 
ties in tfie field pf computational fin'guist~cs, (2) to plo- 
mote cooperation and information exchange among 
related profess~onal and technital societies; (3) to 
represent computational llnguistlca to foundations 
and government agenues and lo represent tho United 
States to similar organizations in other nations and in 
international organlzatlohs which rncludc Cbmputa- 
,tional lingulstlcs as a proper concern. 
Membership Reqyirements 
Any person fino IS intetested in computational llr~ 
guistics-is invited to ioin the Assoclatlon. 
Antlvi ties 
The Associatlon m#e?s.snnually. usually with the Ner- 
tional Cornputq~ Qonf.etsnce and Exposition or with, 
the Lingu~qic Soqiety of lcrmerica at 'their summer 
meeting. 
Publications 
The American Journal of Computational Linguist~cs, 
the primary journal of the Association, appears quar- 
terly. The AJCL is piublished sn 4" x 6': units, each an 
ind-ek card or a miqrofiche. For each article, blbl~og- 
raphy, or survey. two unlts are supplied - an index 
card bearlng a summary and a microfiche'conta~ning 
the full text. Announcements and advertisements ap- 
pear on index cards. A yearly index is prov~ded on 
tabbed Index cards. 
Dues 
Individual ....................... .... $10.00 
jnstitutron ............ :. ...,.... ............. 25.00 
For Further Inforqation'Contact: 
A. Hood Roberts 
ACL Center for Applied Linauistics 
161 1 North Kent 6t. 
.Arlington, VA 22209 
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) 
Purpose 
TO advance the sciences and arts of information pro- 
aessing includtng the study, designi development. 
construction, ana application of modern machinew. 
cbmputrng techn~ques and appropriate languages ror 
general information processing. storage, retrieval,and 
processing of data of all,kinds, and for the automatic. 
control and simulation or process. 
TO promote rrie rree interchange of informatlqn ahout 
the sciences and-arts of information prme~sing 
1-0 develop and rnaiataln the lntegrlty ana compe- 
tence of individuals engaged in the practlce 04 the 
sciences and arts: of information processing. 
Mernberlhtp Requirements 
Meniher: Persons qualified to be members: a) sup- 
scri~v the purposes of ACM; b) have attained pra- 
fessi~nal statur,e as,denlonstrated by intellectual com- 
petence and ethjcal conduct In tlt'e hrts and sciences 
of ~nformation processing; c) have earnedla.8achelors 
Degr,ec or academlc equivalent, or have four years' 
fulr-time experience i~ rformatioq processing; d) are 
endarsed by two members of ACM and who attest to 
the above. Associate Member: Persons qualified to b.e 
associate memb-ers s'ubscrlbe to the purposes of the 
Associatlon. Student Members: \ndividuals registered 
in an accredited educational instltutwn full-t~me are 
qualified for student membershim 
Activities 
ACM conducts the Annual ACM Conference, the An- 
nual Computer Science Conference, and partlclpates 
in the organization of th~ National Computer Confer- 
ences. In additfbn. reglonal and chaptet; meetings 
are held. SpeZial Interest Groups in a valrlety of disol: 
pllnes are also available to ACM members. Special 
Interest Group-s publisp mewslettprs and sponsor 
meetirrgs in their technical areas. There are over 240 
chdolers and student chapters provid~ng locally spun- 
sored programs. 
Publications 
r he journal or the Association fur 
Computing Machinery - Quarterly 
The Communications of the ACM --Monthly 
Computing Revlews - Monthly 
Computing Surveys - Quarterly 
Transactions on Mathematicat Software - Quar tad) 
For Further Information Contact: 
Joseoh Cunninghatn 
Association for Computing Machinery 
T133'Avenue of the Americas 
NewYgrk, N. Y. 10036 
AFIPS CONSTITUENT SOCIETIES 
&ssociatiop-for Educational Data 
Systems (rC\EDS) 
Purpose 
The Association f~r Educatlorial Data Systcn~S IS 't 
prlvdtc, nonprofit educational ory;rn~zation fotindcd In 
1962 b,y a group of ptofoss~otlal P~lucalors dnd Iccll- 
nical spoc~,~lists in oduc,ltion~l gppl~~atiohs. It:, inten- 
tion 1s to provldcr ;I forum ldr tlio oxch;rllgc of irlcas 
and  formation' about tfis ~clatlonsli~p ot'morltr~rl tcch- 
rlofogy to modern educ'atlon. 
Membership Requirements 
AEDS membership is currcntry at 1,70U with mombct- 
ship open to all interested in learning more and keep- 
ing ~nformed about current dcvoloprncots ~nd 
directions in educational data Systems and computcl 
technology. 
Actiyi ties 
An annual international coofei'ence 1s held to brlng 
together key people from educat~o~i and t~'ctlnical 
specialists. Executives, adminlst~ators fiom all jcvols 
of education, and all fypes of research. m~inufdcturlng 
arid cammercl,~l servlcc ~Tganizatlons ntc' represented 
at th~s conference 
An annu~l computer programming contest is held for 
secondary scnool Students In gmdes 7-12.' The con- 
desl is on the appfoved Ilst of cantests and acfiv111t.s 
published by, the National Assocmt~on of Secondary 
Schodl Frincipals. 
Local chapters regularly sponsor workshaps and sem- 
inars qn relevant toplcs dcslgned to advance edyca- 
tion by develooing 'a greater awareness of the Impact 
dl educst~onal bctinology. 
Publications 
AEDS Monitor - Monthly 
AEDS Journal - Quarterly 
Convention proceedings - Annually 
AEDS Handbook and Membership Directory - 
Annually to members only 
Large School Survey 
Layman's Gu~de to Use of Computers 
Dues 
Sfudent ........................... ,-... .... 5 10.00 
lndjvidual.. ......................... ..., 20.00 
tn'stitutional. ...................................... 100.00 
.............. Suskirnng ............... ,... 300.00 
For Further Infomation. Contact: 
Shirley Easterwood 
Association for Educational.Data Systems 
1201 7 6th St., N.W. 
Washington, D.C. 20036 
Data Processing Management 
Association (DPMA) 
Purpose. 
DPMA is an organization serving the information proc- 
essing arid computer management community. Among 
its primary qbjectlvgs RIQ: (1) oducation and ~esear rti 
ilctivitles focused on tho development of cffcclivc! 
mnnagen~eX programs for tho Sel.f-improvomr~~l~ of 
the membership, (2) encouragement of high standikrds 
of comp~tenco, and promotlon of n profess~onal nttl- 
tude among.th8 mombershir* and (3) fostering of a 
6etfer understanding bf the vital business role of data 
processing !n society, and theproper relotionshlp of 
data processrng to management. 
Membership Requlrernents 
Membeshlp is granted onlf through a local chapte:, 
except in areas outsldc North America wherc tncrc is 
no chapter. Regutzf membership is grnntdd by the 
chapter. Board of Directors to persons engaged ..in 
managerial or supervisory po'sitions in data process- 
ing, educators, and executive personnel with a direct 
interest in dala .processing. Affiliate membersh~p may 
be granted by the Board to graduntesof an accredited 
college or university who are former members of o 
DPMA student organlzatlon: college graduates wlth 
one yal ol EDP cxporlencc; or ~ndividuals whose 
major source of income is dlrect selling or lens~npof 
EDP equipment, supplies, or educational courses. 
Activities 
Tho Assbc~ation sponsors INFO1 EXPO. ' the annual 
lnternational Data Processing Conference and Busi- 
ness Exposrtion 'which -fentunes seminars, panels, 
workshops. special *sessions, on technical and cspc- 
cially management subjects. In add~tlon, DPMA "par- 
ticipates in the organization of thc National Computer 
Conference, Other programs and scrvlces offered by 
the Association include: regtonal conferences; indi- 
vidual chapter educat~onal meetings*; .v~deo tape sem- 
inars under chapter sponsorship featuring natronally 
known Industry experts, with- particular emphasis on 
management-oc~ented topics;-AIM (Advanced Instruc- 
tion for Management) one-day. on-site semlnars co- 
sponsored by chapters; and all-day chapter-sponsored 
seminars on Business & Management Pr~nciples. 
Publications 
Data Management - Monthly 
Special technical publ~cations, books, and pamphlets 
Dues 
International ............................ $ 30.00 
C-hapter .... ~. .............. ..., ............ 10-30.00 
Affiliate ........ .......,. ....................... 30.00 
For Further Information Contact: 
Donn Sanford 
Data Processing Manaaement Association 
505 Busse hlghway 
Park Ridge, Illinois 60068 
12 
AFIPS CONSTITUENT SOCIETXES 
IEEE Computer Soclety 
The Institute of Internal Auditors, Inn, (114 
Purpose 
The IEEE Computer Society is actually part of a much 
larger organization. the lnstituta of Electrical and 
Electronics EnginrjsTs. Wlth so many spacial interests 
arnorg its members, it was natural for thoso who 
wanted to exchonga knowladga or who wished to 
concantlate on qne aroa of oloctronics to create Spe- 
cial lntorest Groups. The IEEE Camputor Society was 
formed to advdnco tho theory and the practice of com- 
puter and information processing techhbl~gy and ex 
change of technical informatlon among its members. 
The scope of the Society encompasses all asnects of 
design theory and practica relating to digitad hlld ana- 
os devices, computation and information processing 
Membership Requirements 
You are eligible for Computer Society membership if 
you (1) are a member of the IEEE or an approved soci- 
ety: (2) have graduated from a 4-year course of study, 
or its equ~valent in a school of recognized standing; 
(3) have been involved professionally ir) the computer 
field for a period of at least flve years; (4) are A regis- 
tered student interested insthe Society's field 04 inter- 
est.' 
Activities 
The IEEE Computer. Saciev sponsors tne Annua 
Computer Society Conference and parilcipatss in the 
organizat~on of the National Computer Conference. JF 
addition meetings for the presentation of tectinica 
papers and ldcal chapter meetings are hold regularly 
The technical committees sponsor many seminars 
symposia*and sessions for the benefit of its member- 
ship. They also arrange the Distinguished isitors 
Program which prov~des loi leading computer pro- 
fessionals to speak to the local cnapters of the Soci- 
ety and educational institutions. 
Publications 
Computer Magazine - Monthly 
Transactions on Computers - Monthly 
Transactions on Software Engineering - Quarterly 
Proceedings (and special bdoks as warranted) 
Dues 
lEEE Members ..................................... ..........., $ 6.00 
Non-members applying to 
IEEE Compuier Society and IEEE 
............................. U.S. and Canada ......,.. 46.00 
Other Countries .%... ..................................... 41.00 
Affiliate Membership ..... 24.00 
For Further Information contact: 
Harry Haymah 
P.O. Box 639A 
Silver Spring, Maryland ,20901 
Purpose 
The InstiWtrr of Internal Audlto s 1s an international 
organization dedicated to the advanccrhcnk ot the 
professloh of internal auditing. The Instlhte ,zcks the 
enrichment of ks rnembhrs through the'interchrtngo nf 
ideas, tnforma~lon and contacls. It 1s dedicated to 
niaintn~ning fhq highost po9sible stdndards of compe- 
tence, morality and dign~ty in the professjan 
Membership Raquit ernents 
All praC1lClnQ internal auditors, thgse resp~nsible for 
the funct~on, publ~c accountants, educators. and aud- 
iting students are ~nvited to join The Institute. 
Activities 
The lnstltute offers many benefits to its members 
through a wlde variety of services frdm its interna- 
tional headquarters and its chaptgr orga~lrations. In 
the fleld of EDP audlt~ng, in particular. a spectal* 
department helps the aud~tor keep up wlth this chang- 
Ing field and provides hard-to-locate EDP aud~ting In- 
fdrmatron. An "EDP Systems" department in the Instc 
tule's award-w~nning b~monthly technical journal, The 
Infernal Auditor, and a nionthly EDP-updating service, 
EOPACS, are additional helps published for those in- 
volved irrthe audit and control sf EDP systems. A con- 
tinuing program of gemlnars, woykshops, and lectures 
conducted by the Cadmus Education Foundation of 
The Insfltute, along w~th annual area and lnternat~onnl 
conferences, serve to keep the internal auditor "on 
top" of the latest developments in techniques and 
practices ~rt Yhe field. An examlrintion in internal aud~t- 
rng and related subjects is offered to those who nieet 
certaln equirements. Those quafrf~ed will be entitled 
to use the profess~onal designation of 'Cert~fied Inter- 
nal Auditor (CIA). The Institute also publishes re- 
search reports on such toplcs as electrmic data 
pl ocessing, statistical sampling. ~n.sentory csntroi, 
organ~zational control, and the'behavlorai selences. 
Publications 
The Internal Auditor - Bimonthly 
Aud~t~ng News - six times a year 
Edpacs - Monthly 
Spec~al researdh reports and books 
Dues 
.................... Member or Associate Member ., $60.00 
............................ Educational Associate 26.00 
Retired Member ............................... .,.. 13.00 
Student Member ................................ 10.00 
For Further Infurmation Contact: 
Williaw E. Perry: CIA 
The Instdute of Internal Auditors, lne 
5500 Diplomat Circle 
Orlando, Florida 32810 
AFIPS CONSTITUENT SOCIETIES 
Instrument Society of America (ISA) 
Purpose 
The Instcumant Society of America is a nonprofit 
scientific, technical and educational organization 
dedicated to advancing and reinforcing the arts and 
Bclencas related to the rheoty, design, manufacture 
and use of instruments and controls In tho varloos 
sciences and technologies for the benefit of mankind 
Membershlp Requirements 
The types of memberships available in ISA are predi- 
cated upan specific Individual quatificatians. Senior 
Membership requites either a B.S, or engineerlng de- 
gree and at least six years work in instrumentation, 
two years having been in a position of responsible 
charge; or no degree but ten-years work in instru- 
mentation, two years having been in a position of 
responsible charge. A Regular Membership is open 
to any persgn interested in instrumentatian and the 
programs of the Sociefy. An Associate Membership is 
limited to those whose principal interests and occu- 
pations are not specificaUv in instrumentation. Student 
Members are either enrolled as iull-time students or 
enrolled in a formal spprenticeship course. 
Activjties 
The scope of Society activities embraces these areas 
of instrumentation: aerospace, analysis, automatic 
control systems, bb-medical s.ciences, chemical and 
petroleum, cryogenic thstrumentation, data handling 
and computation, food, maintenance, marine sciences 
metals, metrology, mining and metallurgy, power 
process measurement and control-, pulp aad paper 
scientific instrumentation and research, telemetry 
test tneasurernent, textile and tranwortation. 
ISA publishes and disseminates information develobs 
standards; conduct$ conferences, symposia ana ex- 
hibits: providas educational services and honors'indi. 
vidwl achievement. 
Publications 
Instrumentation Technology - Monthly 
Proceedings - Annual 
Advances in Instrumentation - Quarterly 
lSAf ransactions - Quarterly 
Special ~ubiications - As warranted 
Dues 
Senior Member ................................................ $26.00 
Regular Member .............................................. 
Associate Member ..... .........,.... .................... 25*08 15.0 
................................................................ Student 5.00 
F-ar Further Information Conlact: 
Executive Director 
Instrumentation Society of Ameriob 
400 Stanwix Street 
Pittqburgh. Pa. 15222 
~oclety for Computer Simulation (SCS) 
P~lpvrr: 
Tha Society fo~ Computer Simulation is the principal 
tochnical spciety devoted to the aclvancoment of sim- 
ulation thtougb tho uso of computars and similar 
dovicas whloh gqploy mithctnatic'ill or physicnl anal- 
ogies. The purposo of SCS is to promota the Ilevoiop: 
men! of,simulatlon tecl~nology and'to wldon its appli- 
cation i,n all fields. I~I most of its activities SCS seoke 
to accompl~sh lheso ends through tho exchange of 
information among people who ate using simulation 
to advantage in their endeavors. 
Membership Requ1rer)lents 
Full membership IS open to people who have been 
professionally engaged in any phase of simutat~on 
and allied computer techhology for at least four years. 
This requiremerit may be met by graduation from a 
four-year course of study in an approprlatc field of 
scienoe, engineerlng, or mathematics at an accred- 
~ted institution of hrgtier Jearoing or by its equivalent 
Associate Membershlp In fbe Socie!y IS available to 
anyone who is interested in the technology of s~mula- 
tioh or in applicat~~ns of the computer arts and sci- 
enC8S. Student Mombershjps are open to any oerson 
egularly enrolled on a substantially full-time basis in 
an institution of higher learning, including graduate 
student$ who hoJd teaching fellowships, upon certl- 
lication of their status by a member of the faculty of 
such institution. 
Activl ties 
SCS co-sljonsors the Summer Computer Simulation 
Conference and the Winter Simulation Conference, 
and participates in the ~rgani~atbn- of the ~ati0nal 
Computer Conferences. Individual Reg~onal Colrncil 
meetings present papers and panels on selected top- 
ics and offer attendees an opportunity to' take guided 
tours of the hosting organ~zatlon's s~mulat~on facilit~es 
Puljlica tions 
Simulation - Monthly 
Procegdings - Semiannually 
Dues 
Full hember ............................................. $25.00 
.............. ........................... AsSociateMember .. 25.00 
Undergraduate &.:Graduate Student Member 15.00 
Senior Member. ....... Speclal A~~l~cation Necessary 
For Further Information Contact: 
Alex McKenn8 
The Societv for Computer S~mulation 
P,O. box z2228 
La Jolla. California 92038 
FIPS CONSTITUENT SOCIETIES 
Society for Industrial and 
Applied Mathematics (SIAM) 
Society for Information Display ISID) 
Purpow 
The Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematlcs 
was formed in 1952 lo furtlier the applications of math- 
ematics to problems in industry and science Rccog- 
nizing the gap in a professional structulo where the 
ropid expansion of industrial research had crentod a 
need tot basic analytical thought and n6w mathemuti- 
cal methods, S-AM developed new media to br~dge 
this gap and foster the exchange of ideas among ali 
who are interested in theapplicatlons of mathematics 
Membership Requirements 
Membership In SIAM is available to those people intet- 
ested in the goals and objectives af the Society. 
Formal applications are directed to a Membership 
Committee for approval. 
Activities 
SlAM conducts two national meetings edch year in 
the Spring anti Fall Such meetings are structured on 
a aentral theme to discuss an important and timely 
subject in mathematics In addition, with the support 
of the National Science Foundation, the Office of 
Naval Research, and the Air Force Off~ce of Scientific 
Research, SlAM sponsors special international sym- 
posia bn various topics in mathematics. SlAM also 
created the SlAM Institute for Mathematics and Socf- 
aty in January 1973 to foster the application of mathe- 
matics to the major problems of socrety. 
Publications 
SlAM Journal on Applied Mathematlcs - 
2 volumes per year, 4 issues each 
SlAM Journal on Computing - Quarterly 
SlAM Journal on Control - Bimonthly 
SlAM Journal on humerical Analysis - Elmonthly 
SlAM Revlew - Quarterly 
SIAM Journal of Mathematical Analysis - Bimonthly 
Theory of Probability and Its Applica!ions - Quarterly 
SlAM News - B~rnonthly~ 
Dues 
............... .............. Regular Members -.. a $22.00 
Student Members ....... ............... 10.00 
For Further Information Contact: 
R. K. Windsor 
Society for Applled and Industrial Mathematics 
33 South 17th Street 
Philadelphia, Pa. 19103 
Putyose 
The Society for lnformation Display was chartered Bs 
a nonprofit technrcal corpolation In 1962. wtlh me 
iollowing goals and purposes: 
Encouragr, and contflbute to the sc~cnl~f~c 
udvancemcnt of Information DlsplBy 
Promob the yse ol I'nformatlbn 01splay 
Maintain a central file ~f d~splay ~nformatrun 
for use by members 
Prov~de forums for the exchange end dlssemlnatlon 
of ideas and knowledge related to lnformatlon 
Display 
Promulgate debnitionsand standards pertalnlng 
to the field of Information Display 
Stimulate new idees in Information Display and 
foster their develppmeht, 
Membership Requirements 
Current rnembersh~p in SID is approximately 2.000 
and is open to ail who can. benefit from the Soc~ety 
and wish to further ils goals. Membership is open to 
both ~ndividuhls and companies. 
Activities 
The Socrety sponsors an Annual Technical Sympos- 
lurn and occasional shorter meetirigs. In addition, all 
SID members are afflllated with one of ten local chap- 
tors located throughout the world, which serve as the 
focaf points of regular technical meetings, tbld trips, 
seminars. and tutotiats, Members are, encouraged to 
part~cipato in all Society activities and ta present 
their jechhical achievements and views in 6lD publl- 
Cations. 
Publications 
Proceedings of the SID - Quarterly 
SID Journal - Bimonthly 
Symposium Digest --Annuat- 
Dues 
Member arid Associate .................... ..; .... S 15.00 
.......................................... Sustaining. 150.00 
Student (full-time) .................... ..-....... .. 3.00 
Proceedrngs not included 
For Further Information Contact: 
VSolet Puff 
Sooiety for lnformation Display 
654 North Sepulveda Blvd. 
Los Angeles. Ca 90049 
AFIPS CONSTITUENT SOCXETIES 
Special Libraries Association (SLA) 
Purpose 
The Association encourageB ana promotes Ine utili- 
zation of knowledge through the collection, organi- 
zatlon end dissemination of information, SLA is an 
association of Individuals and or~onlzations with edu- 
cational, scientlfio and tschnica itltereqts in library 
and Information science and tc hnology, especially 
as these are applied to the sell ctldn, recording, re- 
trieval and effective utlliration jf man's knowledge 
Speclal libraries serve Industry; business, -esearch, 
educational and technlchl institutions, govarnment, 
special departments of public and university libraries, 
newspapers, museums, and all ot'ganlzatians, both 
public arrd private, requiring or providing specialized 
Informatioh, 
SLA and its members are Gancernea wrtn tne aauance- 
ment arrd improvement of the communication, dissem- 
ination and ultlrnate use of information and knowledge 
for the general welfare and the advancement of man- 
kind. 
MemDersnip Requirements 
Membership category depends on the applkant's 
background. Members are assigned to the highest 
membesshjp class for which they are qualified, Appli- 
cation4 may be obtained from the Association's office 
In New York. 
Activities 
The Special Libraries Association holds an Annual 
Conference in June, which lnoldde's sessions of both 
general and Specifi~ prabskiond interests, discussion 
of new equipment and technolasy, division arogram 
and business meetings field trips to outstanding spe- 
cial libraries and informatton centers, conttnuing edu- 
cation seminars, and an extensive exhibit area. 
Putilications 
Speclal Libraries 
Scientific Meetings 
'Technical Book Review Index. 
Books and Monographs 
Dues 
Regular ...................................................... $ 30.00 
Associate .......................................................... 30.00 
Stukient ............................. ... ........................ 8.00 
Retired ...................... ttttt.ttttt.tt...........,_ ...................... 10.00 
For Further lhformation. Contack 
Dr. Frank McKenna 
Special Librafies Association 
235 Park Avenue South 
New York, N. Y. 10003 
About AFIPS 
The ,American Federation of lnformation Processing 
Societies represents 15 natlonal organlzatio~s en- 
gaged in the design andlor application of computers 
and information processing systems. 
Dedicated to nonprofit scientific and educational pur- 
Qoses, the Federation acts In behalf of tFfese Constit- 
uent Societles irl cat'rying out programs designed to 
advance lnformatlon processing as a rasponsiblo 
profession. 
Its primary objectives Include: 
Undertaking of joint information processing 
activities on hehalf of its Constituent Societles 
Promotion of cooperation and information exchange 
among professional and technical secieties, 
governmental organizations, and nonpolitical 
lnternational gtoups 
Participation In nonprofit International organizations 
concerned with computers and information 
processing 
* Undertatiing of research and development activities 
ih the information processing field 
* Provision of servi.ces to Constituent Societies 
Dissemination of reliable information on'lnformation 
processing and its, progress to interested groups 
and to the generai pabric 
In addition fo the National Computer Conference L 
Exposition which is sponsotwd annually by AFIPS 
ACM, DPMA, IEEE-CS and SCS, the Federation also 
sponsors confemnccs, seminars and symposiq on be- 
half of its membershipaand maintains a major Wash- 
ington activities progrw. 
AFIPS Press publishes the Proceedings of the National 
Computer Conference, irl addition to the Proceed~ngs 
of special seminars and symposia, statistical research 
reports, and information booklets. 
Educational projects include the development of ca- 
reer inf~rmation, ass~stance in the development of 
educational guidelines,and teacher training programs, 
and a Computer Internship~Program designed to as- 
sist developing countris. 
important programs are continually being carr~ed out 
by the Public lnformation office, the Statistical Re- 
search and the S6cial Implications Programs. 
On the international scene, AFIPS is the U.S. repre- 
sentative to the international Federation for Informa- 
tion Processing and participates actively in the IFlP 
Group for kdntinistrative Data Processing (IAG). 

REFERENCES 
Chauche, J. P. Guillaume, and M. Quezel-Ambrunaz. Le systeme 
A.T.E.F. Internal document, G.E.T.A. December 1972. 
Chauche, J. Arborescence et transformation. Thesis, Grenoble. 
December 19.74 
Chauche, J. Presentation du systeme C.E.T.A. Internal docu- 
ment, C..E.T.A. January 1975. 
Charniak, Eugene. Toward a mode7 af children's story comprehension. 
AI-TR266, MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratoryi 1972. 
Collinsv Allan M., and M. ROSS Quillian. Retrieval from semantic 
memory. Jou'rnal of. Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 8:240-247, 1969. 
Rewitt, Carl Planner: A language for proving theorems in robots. 
In Proceedings of the Interna tional Joint Conference on Artificial Intel- 
ligence, ed Donald Walker and L. Norton, 1969. 
Katz, Jerry A., and Jerrold Jo Katz. The structure of a semantic 
theory. Language 39:170-210, 1963. 
McDeTmott, IY. V. Assimilation of new information by a natural lan- 
guage understanding system. AI-TR291, MIT ALtificial Intelligence Labo- 
ratory, 1974. 
Minsky, Marvin. A framework for representing knowledge. AI-Memo 
MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, 1974. 
Norman, Donald A. Memory, knowledge, and the answering of questiohs. 
Pn Contemporary issues in cognitive psychology: The Loyola Symposium, ed. 
Robert L Solso. V. H. Winston &I Sons, Washington, and Halsted Press Divi- 
sion of John ~iie~ & Sons, New York, 1973. 135-165. 
Norman, Donald A., David E. Rufnelhart, and the LNR Research Group. 
Explorations in Cognition- Freeman, San Francisco, 1975. 
Palme, 3. The SQAP data base for natural Language information. Foa 
P rapport C8376-M3 (ES), Research Institute of National Defence, Stockholm, 
1973. 
Raphael, Bertram. Sir: A computer program for semantic information 
retrieval. In Semantic information processing, ed. Marvin Minsky. MIT 
Press, Cambridge, 1968. 33-134. 
Rieger, Chuck J. Conceptual mewory. Ph, D. Thesis, Stanford Uni- 
versity, 1974. 
Scragg; Greg W. LUIGI: an English question answering program. MS, 
Center for Human Information Processing, University sf California, San. 
Diego, 1973. 
Scragg, Greg W. Answering questions about pxocesses. Thesis; 
University of California, San Diego, 1974. Reprinted in part in Norman 
et al., 1975. 
Schubert, L. K. Extending the expressive power of semantfc networks. 
Proceedings Of the Fourth International Joint Conference on Artificial 
Intelligence, in press. 
S. A. Gjuimisarjan, F. A. Dreizin, Z. T. Ter-Misakjamts. Mathematical Formulae in Broad Context. Scientific and Technical Information, Series 2, No. 3, Moscow, 1971.
F. A. Dreizin. A Computational Approach to the Choice of Analysis in the Case of Syntactic Ambiguity. Mechanical Translation and Applied Linguistics, No. 10, Moscow, 1967.
