COMPUTATIONAL COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON ROMANCE LAGUAGES 
A linguistic comparison of lexicon-grammars 
Annibale ELIA & Yvette Mathieu 
Istituto di Linguistica Universita di Salerno 
Laboratoire d'Automatique Documentaire et Linguistique 
C.N.R.S. - Universit~ de Paris 7 
I. The linguistic comparison of lexicon-grammars 
What we present here is an application on the 
basis of the italian and french linguistic data bank 
assembled by the Istituto di Linguistica of Salerno 
University (Italy) and the Laboratoire Automatique 
Documentaire et Linguistique (C.N.R.S,-France). These 
two researching centers have been working for years 
to the constitution of formalized grammars of the 
respective languages. The composition of lexicon-gram- 
mars is the first stage of this project. 
A lexicon-grammar requires the study of nearly 
300 syntactic property for all words of a language. 
The data revealed in this way are memorized under a 
matricial form of the type 
I ........ ~ .......... ~ - , ............. .+,...+~-- 
' i ~' 
Fig.l 
Therefore we have a number of classes of nouns, adjec- 
tives, adverbs, conjunctions and verbs, the determi- 
ners and the prepositions being included in the ver- 
bal classes. 
Some matrices exist with lexicon-grammars corre- 
spondances between two lexicon-grammars as: 
TABLE 45 
- - - a~14ognarm - - - + - + + - - + + + + .... ÷ .... +volt beloin - 
- ibu*~. - - + - + .... ÷ ÷ + * .... + ÷ - ÷ - *bul,~ e' 
- *pp~o*ltta,* - - * ÷ + ÷ - + - + + + * .... + .... pro+it.~ e 
-- - apprQ@ltta~sl - - * + + * = - - + * * + * - _ + + + - _ - en prDfJter - 
- ~lfiid*r. + - + ÷ - + * + - + + * + .... + - - ÷ - ~* *l~l.r 
- di**ntl¢*~l - - + - + - + * + + * + * - - - + + - - + ÷ aubillr 6 
. - - dlspararl - + ÷ * + + + + - + + - ÷ .... + - . - + d4lilpOrlr e 
4llp*~ar*i - - + + + + - ÷ - ÷ ÷ + + - - + + + + + + + um di~ispirer 
~ua*tar* - - ÷ ÷ + + + + + + * * * .... ÷ .... do~t,~ B 
- - - isultarl + - + * + + - ÷ - ÷ * * * + - + * + * + + + exulter 8 
flni*stlce~* - - + * + + + + + + + + + - + - - + + - ÷ + rlve, B 
- - 'lavoiar. - - + + + - + + - * + * * - + + - + + - + + ~*ver 
- ¢IvoligllIPl - - + + + + + + - + + + + .... + + - + * livlr B 
-'°<'.-... .... 
.... +,o,,, :::::::::::::::::::::: ..... . 
? llpillirl - + + + - + - + - + + ÷ + - - _ ÷ ..... rlCfollr B 
+ + - _ niClllttir I - - - + - + *+ * - . + + + .... + .... niCll.l~ir I0 
- plnttril - - + + + + + + - + + + + - - + + + - _ + + ii rlplntlr 17 
+ + - - P coitttlPl - - + + + + + + - * + + + + - - + + .... proil+lr B 
-- +lcor+irl t - - + - + - + + + + + + + - + - + + - . + * ii pip+ill+ m 
- rldlPllnl - - + * + + + i - * * + + - - - + ..... ll rlr+ B 
+ - _ _ Pill~iirlt : + + + + + - + - + + + + - - _ . + + + + + ii tilllntl+ m 
+ - = - .¢.l+arsl - - + - * - * * + * * * + - - - + * - % + + ++bilep 6 
- .oi.*~. + - - * - * + + - + + + + - - - + + * - - - +i+.P , 
- IOV iv .iPll - - + + i - # @ + + + i + .... + - _ + + ii ~ipplilP 0 
+ - - - tac.~l - - * + + + - + + + + + + - + + + + + - * + +1 tilt, n 
- vlll+~n4p$i - - # i # i + + - # + + i i - + # # # # + + iioIp ~o~+i 
Fig. 2 
The composition of a lexicon-grammar allows to take 
into account selection and sub-categorization restri- 
ctions as well as derivational morphologic relations, 
without getting away from the limits of the formal 
syntax, that is, in limiting to the only experience 
of the estimation of acceptability, the recourse to 
intuitions of semantic nature. 
A lexicon-grammar can satisfactorily render an 
account for the lexical and syntaxical differences 
of a word and those morphologically connected to it, 
allowing as well a comparison with verbs and nouns 
of another language disposing of a lexicon-grammar. 
The high level of lexicon syntactic informations 
of the italian and french lexicon-grammars allowed us 
to a very subtle comparative study of the two langua- 
ges. For exemple, the comparison of the italian verb 
investire and the french verb investir, leads to the 
following situation: 
ItaIian 
INVESTIRE \] 
(I NO V N1 di N2 =: 
(I a. La regina ha investito i Beatles del titolo 
di baronetti 
146 
(1) b. II governo ha investito una commissione par- 
lamentare del compito di indagare sul caso 
Moro. 
INVESTIRE 2 
(2) NO V Nl in N2 =: 
(2) a. Max ha investito un milione nell'affare 
(2) b. Eva ha investito (molto, tutta se stessa, il 
suo affetto) nel rapporto con Max 
INVESTIRE 3 
(3) NO V N1 (E,con N2) -: 
(3) a. II generale investi la piazzaforte (E, con 
le truppe d'assaIto) 
(3) b. Luca invest~ (Eva, l'auto di Eva) (E, con 
l'automobile) 
(3) c. Eva invest~ Max (E, (con,di)(tutti i suoi 
problemi, parolacce)) 
INVESTIRE 4 
(4) NO si V di N1 =: 
(4) a. Lotario si invest~ de\] potere regale 
INVESTIRE 5 
(5) NO si V di Nl =: 
(5) a. Max si @ investito de\] (ruolo, personaggio) 
di Don Giovanni 
INVESTIRE 6 
(6) NO V N1 =: 
16) a. Questa diffic~}e scelta investe tutti noi 
(6) b. La trattazione investe anche i pronomi 
INVESTIRE 7 
(7) NO V Prep NI =: 
(7) a. La nave ~ investita (contro~ su) Io scoglio 
French 
INVESTIR 
l) 
I) a. 
I) b. 
1 
NO V N1 de N2 =: 
Le pape a investi l'@vfque du titre cardina- 
lice 
Le gouvernement a investi le ministre d'une 
charge importante 
INVESTIR 
(2) 
(2) a. 
(2) b. 
2 
NO V N1 dans N2 =: 
Max a investi un million dans l'affaire 
Eva a investi (beaucoup, son affection) 
dans le rapport avec Max 
INVESTIR 3 
(3) NO V NI (E, avec N2) =: 
(3) a. Le g@n~ral a investi la ville {E, avec ses 
troupes) 
The french correspondents for the other uses of 
investire are: 
INVESTIRE 3b. renverser, heurter, entrer en collision 
INVESTIRE 3c. couvrir 
INVESTIRE 4 s'approprier, usurper 
INVESTIRE 5 entrer dans le r6le de 
INVESTIRE 6a. toucher, concerner 
INVESTIRE 6b. concerner 
INVESTIRE 7 6chouer 
To give a comparative presentation of the italian 
and french data, we have two comparative tables of 
the realization of zhe morpheme INVEST- in izalian 
and french. The first one (fig. 3) gives a survey of 
the correspondance, while a detailed comparison of 
the distributional syntactic properties and of the 
paraphrases is given by the second one (Fig. 4) 
\[ N V E S T - 
-IRE (1) ,,. 
-. 1 TIIRA f 
- ITOI~\] 
(I) c, 
-IRE (1) b. 
(1) d. 
-IRE (2) a. I 
- 12{ENTO i 
~ITORE 
-tire (2) b. 
-IRE (3) a, 
I 
- IMENTO I 
-!TORE 
-IRE (3) b. I 
- IHENTO I 
-ITORE 
I 
~ITO 
-IRE (3) c. 
-IRE (4) 
-IRE (s) 
-IRE (6) a. 
-IRE (6) b. 
-IRE (7) I 
-n, tENTO 
J 
- \]\[ TURE f 
- IT1/~ 
-Ill. 
-IR I 
-ISSEMENr I 
-ISSEUR 
-IR 
f 
¢ 
~t RENVERS- -ER 
HEURT- -ER 
T 
¢ 
...... ¢" COUVR- -IR 
USURP- 
/ APPROPRI- -ER 
ENTR- -ER 
...... ¢~ TOUCH- -ER 
CONCERN- -ER 
...... ~- CONCERN- -ER 
...... • - I~CHOU- -ER 
Fi S . 
147 
NoV N1 (di/de) N2 - : titte 
NoVsup V-n (di/de) N2 A N1 
NoV N1 (di/de) N2 - : clmrge 
NoVsup V - n (di/de) N~ A N1 
NoV NI 
• NoVsup V-n A NI 
NoV Nt (di/de) N2 - : confmnc~ 
No Vsup V - n (di/de) N: A NL 
No V Nl - : ~ (in/dam) Nz 
No V N I . : ~ (in/dans)N2 
No Vsup V-n (di/de) N1 (in/dans) N2 
N n . : milaaire V N 1 (E, ((con/avec) N2)) 
NoVmp V-n (di/de) Ni Comp 
No V NI (E~ ((con/avec) Na - : voiture)) 
NoVsup V. n (E. ((con/avec) N:)) 
Nl Vmap V - n 
No V Nz ( E÷ ((con/avec) N2 - : mdtaph.)) 
No Vsup V-n (di/de) NI Comp 
Nosi V di N~ 
No si V d| D~I Ct (di/de) N~ 
Cl " : tuo/o, pe/"soa~g/o / r61e .... 
Ynro V Nhum, 
N O V~p V-n (di/d¢~) N, 
No Vsup V-n (di/de) N! 
No V (E (Prdp N, )) 
No Vsup V - n Comp 
- 
N~ 
T-- 
(b) 
(e) 
(d) 
(a) 
(b) 2 
(,) 
\[(b) 
, 3 
\[(c) 
4 
5 
(~) 
6 (b) 
7 
Fig. 4 
This table is to be read from the top left where the 
verbs investire and investir are placed. In the mid- 
dle the properties are put in a line and noted by 
indications placed at the right concerning the num- 
ber and the kind of use (example, (a)... I. (b) .... 
3, etc) At the top right, there are specifications 
on the support verb (Vsup) and the nominalization 
(V-n). The equivalent structures, italian-french, 
for prepositions and support verbs have a represen- 
tation with a slash / (example di/de: di-italian and 
de-french; dare/donner: dare-italian and donner-fren- 
ch). At the left, there are two columns with plus 
and minus (+, -) which point out whether the proper- 
ty in question is valid or not for the verb; if the 
point is about the property with Vsup, first of all 
you must control if the verb at the left has a + or 
a - in the division of the column, if it is +, you 
can then read at the top right the type of Vsup and 
of V-n; if it is - , but there is a + at the right, 
that means that it refers only to one of the two 
verbs. The $ symbol is equivalent to "financial in- 
vestments" and the symbol to "psychological inves- 
tments". 
148 
Comparison between lexicon-grammars of different lan- 
guages leads to draw up formal correspondences betwe- 
en structures, where so-called "grammatical words" 
are constants. Therefore, those "grammatical words" 
are considered as formal parts of structure. With 
that clause case, for example, we will have to take 
into account the following structures: 
italian french 
...il fatto che F \]e fait que P 
ce que P 
...che F que P 
which, will lead us to say that there is no italian 
correspondent to the french sentence 
(1) Max doute de ce que Marie vienne 
in view of the fact that the italian sentence 
(2) *Max dubita di ci6 che Maria venga 
is unacceptable. But the sentences 
(3) Max doute du fait que Marie vienne {fr) 
(4) Max dubita del fatto che Maria venga (it) 
(5) Max doute que Marie vienne (fr) 
(6) Max dubita che Maria venga (it) 
drive us to consider italian structures (4) and (6) 
at a formal proximity degree of french structure (1). 
From a strictly formal point of view, the correspon- 
dence between (1) and (2) cant'be accepted, but from 
a larger point of view, which implies the formal pro- 
ximity degree notion (obviously depending on the re- 
searcher's theoretical choice) we can mention structu- 
res (4) and (6) as the closest realization of the 
french structure (1). Of course, strucLures (4) and 
(6) have the strict formal correpondents (3) and (5). 
The very complex data organization is usable by spe- 
cialists but not by ordinary users. That is why we 
have been interested by the realization of a flexi- 
ble and intelligent system, which allows the consul- 
tation and comparaison of the two languages lexicon- 
grammars (which are at the present day romance langu- 
ages lexicon-grammars), and which includes the cor- 
respondance notion we have just presented. Its use 
will not need any knowledge neither of the data or- 
ganization nor of computer science. 
2. The TRANSLEGS system 
The general TRANSLEGS's architecture is illustrated 
( query ) (answer) / 
INT~INTERFACE '- J french lexicon 
I " /talian l~icon 
~ l italian lexicon-gramar 
\[Research and reasoning'~ Rules base \[ 
Fig. 5 
A "query-answer" system of the interface allows Lo 
choose the type of research one wants to make. The 
system offers a research arborescence guided by its 
own resources and by the user's choices. 
If the study concerns, for example, a class drawn up 
a know definitional property, TRANSLEGS will look for 
all the properties of this class, whether the corres- 
pondents exist in the other language, which elements 
appear (nouns, verbs, adjectives), in which struc~u- 
res do they appear and how do the correspondents of 
the other language behave. 
If the study concerns a particular verb or noun, the 
system will look for the strucLures where this ele- 
ment appears, it will find its correspondent in the 
other language and the classes in which it exists, 
its properties and those of the correspondent into 
a given class. It will look for elemenLs that have 
a degree of proximity for the secondary corresponden~ 
ce, and how do they behave in front of the properties 
and associated sentences. 
in some cases, TRANSLEGS's answer needs deduction 
rules, if properties or classes exist in one langua- 
ge and not in the other one for example, fhen, the 
system will propose "substitution" classes according 
to their formal proximity degree, lh# same type of 
answer will be done if one element has some proper- 
ties in one language that its correspondent doesn't 
have. 
The system being quite supple, the user can create 
his own environment 
a) by modifying the deduction rules 
b) by building new structures according to lin- 
guistic choices different from those reflected by 
existing classes (in that cas TRANSLEGS will make a 
class from the choosen definition property and those 
linked to it). 
The system is written in PROLOG and runs on a VAX ll/ 
750 from Digital Equipment. 
3. Examples of dialogues 
In the following examples, TL means TRANSLEGS 
EX. I 
(TL) 
(User) 
(FL) 
(User) 
(TL) 
(User) 
(TL) 
(User) 
(TL) 
Quel\]e est la langue de r~f~rence? 
franqais 
Quel est le nora a 6tudier? 
amour 
Voulez-vous 
- la liste des classes oi il apparait(1) 
~tudier une classe particuli~re (2) 
- ~tudier une classe parLiculiere et 
conna:itre le comportement de l' 
~quivalent italien (3) 
Quelle classe voulez-vous ~tudier (num#ro 
ou intitul#) ? 
No Vsup Det N Prep Nl 
Le nom amour poss~de les propri#t#s suivan-- 
tes: 
Verbe support: avoir 
propri#L~ NO = Nhum #quivalente & la propri- 
#t# itali~nne NO = Num 
propri6t# D#t = un modif #quivalente & la 
propri6t# itali#nne Det = un modif 
propriQt# D#t = du ~quivalente ~ la propri#- 
t# itali~nne Det = de\] 
propri#t6 Prep = pour 6quivalente a la pro-- 
pri~t~ itali~nne Prep = per 
Son 6quivalent italien amore poss~de les 
propri6t#s suivantes: 
Verbe support: avere 
149 
Ex. 2 
: Le verbe italien derivare poss6de les pro- 
pri~t6s suivantes: 
propri~t~ 2 : soggetto non attivo 
propri~t# 5 : completiva dal fatto ch F 
Voulez-vous ~tudier son ~quivalent frangais 
(oui/non) 
(User) : oui 
(TL) : L'6quivalent du verbe derivare est le verbe 
fran§ais d~river 
II poss6de les propri#t~s suivantes: 
propri#t# 2: sujet non actif 
propri#t# 3: compl~tive de ce Qu P 
La propri#t# 5 n'existe pas en frangais. 
La propri#t~ 3 peut 6tre consid~r6e comme 
correspondante. 
Ex. 3 
ammirazione avec avere a la propri6t6 D#t 
= 0 admiration ne l'a pas 
Suite propos6e des propri#t~s correspondan- 
tes les plus proches: 
D~t = la 
D6t = une modif 
D~t = de la 
4. Conclusion 
We would like Translegs to be computer tool for two 
main purposes: 
- To allow an ordinary user to consult 
comfortably a linguistic data bank; 
- To allow a linguistic researcher to work 
to a scientific description of a language or of two 
(or more) languages to compare by modifying and/or 
going deeper into lexical or grammatical informations 
already within the data bank made available by our 
laboratories. 

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