The Influence of Tagging on the Classification of Lexical 
Complements 
Catherine Macleod, Adam Meyers, and Ralph Grishman, 
Computer Science Department 
New York University 
715 Broadway, 7th Floor 
New York, NY 10003 
{macleod, meyers, gri shman}@c s. nyu. edu 
Abstract 
A large corpus (about 100 MB of text) 
was selected and examples of 750 fl'e- 
quently occurring verbs were tagged with 
their compleinent (:lass as defined by a 
large computational syntactic dictionary, 
COMLEX Syntax. This tagging task 
led to the refinement of already exist- 
ing classes and to the addition of classes 
that had previously not been defined. 
This has resulted in the enrichment and 
improvement of the original COMLEX 
Syntax dictionary. Tagging also provides 
statistical data which will allow users to 
select, more common complelnents of a 
particular verb and ignore rare usage. 
We discuss below some of the problems 
encountered in tagging and their resolu- 
tion. 
1 Introduction 
COMLEX Syntax is a moderately-broad-coverage 
English lexicon (with about 38,000 root; forms) de- 
veloped at New York University under contract to 
the Linguistic Data Consortium; the first version 
of the lexicon was delivered in May 1994. The 
tagged version was delivered in August 1995. The 
h;xicon is available to members of the Linguistic 
Data Consortium for both research and commer- 
cial applications. It was developed specifically for 
use in processing natural language by computer. 
COMLEX Syntax is particularly detailed in 
its treatment of subeategorization (cotnplement 
structures). It includes 92 different subcategoriza- 
tion features for verbs, 14 for adjectives, and 9 
for nouns. These distinguish not only the (lifter- 
ent constituent structures which may appear in a 
complement, but also the different control features 
associated with a constituent structure. 
In order to make this dictionary useful to the 
entire Natural Language Processing coinmunity, 
an effort was made to provide detailed yet the- 
ory neutral syntactic information. In part, this 
involved using categories that are generally recog- 
nized, i.e. norms, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, 
adverbs, and their corresponding phrasal expan- 
sions np, vp, adjp, pp, advp. COMLEX cites 
the specific: prepositions and adverbs hi preposi- 
tional anti particle phrases associated with partic- 
ular verbs. 1 
As a starting point, the classes for complements 
and features developed by the New York Univer- 
sity Linguistic String Project (LSP) (Fitzpatrick, 
1981), were selected sin(x, the coverage is very 
broad and the classes well defined. These classes 
were augmented and flnther refined by studying 
the coding employed by several other major lexi- 
cons used for automated language analysis. The 
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (OALD) 
(Hornby, 1980), the Longman Dictionary of Con- 
temporary English (LDOCE) (Proctor, 1978), the 
verb (:odes developed for English by Sanfilippo as 
part of the ACQUILEX project(Sanfilippo, 1992), 
and The Brandeis Verb Lexicon 2 were consulted. 
A Brandeis-like notation was adopted for COM- 
I,EX complement naines. The Brandeis nota- 
tion is compositional, consisting of lists of ele- 
ments joined by hyphens e.g. pl-ing-sc (preposi- 
tion "about" followed by a gerund where tile ma- 
trix subject is the subject of the gerund e.g. "he 
lied about going"). In adapting this notation for 
COMLEX, the list of complement nmnes became 
fixed and a separate explicit definition of tile syn- 
tactic structure associated with each complement 
name was provided. I,hrther information on these 
classes and definitions can be found in the Refer- 
ence Manual (Macleod, 1993) and the COMLEX 
Word Classes Manual (Wolff', 1995). 
2 Tagging Task 
We tagged 100 exmnples for each of 750 common 
verbs which had previously been entered in the 
COMLEX lexicon. These tags, which becmne part 
of the dictionary entry, contain tile location of the 
example and the name of the w~'rbal complement 
identified at that location (see figure 1 for a sample 
1e.g. pp :pval "to" for he went to the party; part-np 
:adval "up" for he woke up the child. 
~Developed by J. Grimshaw and R. Jackendoff. 
472 
tagged entry). The original motivation lot tagging 
was l,wofold, (1) to gather stadstil:s on the fix> 
quency of oc(:urrencc of a parti(:ular complement 
of a verb and (2) 1,o check on COMI3BX (:overag(;, 
ascertaining @at l,he most {:(mun(mly occurring 
(',{}mph~meni;s had no|, be(;n (}verl(/oked in tim (}rig- 
inal cntries. 
The (:orI)us us(xl for this t;agging {:(resists (if 
Brown (all, i.e. 7 MB), Wall Sia'{'.{;t ,hmrna.1 
(\] 7 MB), San .lose Mc, l'(:ury (3(} MB), Asso{:iate{t 
Press (29.5 MB), Mis{:eJlaneous (Trc(;1}ank litcra- 
t;ure 1.5 MB) etc. adding up L{I about 1{}0 MB of 
rex|;. 
The tags ill figure 21 are all fl'(}ln I;ll{} Bl(/wn C{)l'- 
t)ils. Wc (:h()s(? 1;o give pref(_~r{~n{;(~ to tagging exam- 
t}tes K()m tlrown. In that way, we i:{ml(t overlap, as 
mu(;h as ln)ssible, with ()ttmr Lagging i~itort;s l;hat 
ha,ve l)e{m d{}ne on l;h(', \]h'own (\]orlms lly dm l){mn 
Treet)ank and Wor{1NeL 
\]ill {,h('. cr(}a£ion of the original C()MI,EX, tra(li- 
t;ional di{:ti(mary pr()cedur(,' was followc{l/)y classi- 
fying verbs as having the {:omt)h;nmnts wid~ which 
|;hey can appear in isolation in simple declarative 
sentences. This {:lassiticadon is cerl;ainly useful 
in mt{lersta,n(ling the argument; stru(:iaue (if dm 
v{',l'l)s. 
lh}wever, this at}i}r{}a{:h rims inl;o {',{}nil|el, with 
tin'. task of tagging cxmnl}lcs in a {:{)ri}us. Com- 
t)hunents may l}e |;l'ansfo\]ln{xl (so\]nel;inles l)(:y(/nd 
ready r{~(:ognition) or {:ontextualty z(;roed. Tim 
conlpleni(~ilt l\[lay (}C{;llr in |;lit; sanl(~ H(~ilf,(~Jic( ', ,%s 
in topi{:a\]izal;i(m and l}assivizati(m, it, may t}(; ze- 
roed but re{:ov(;ral)h~ (to a gre, ater or less(!r {h,'gr('s) 
as in wh-clmlses, and wh-qu('.stions, it may 1}e ze- 
lO(~,d and re{:{)veral)\]{~ s{unmlt;i(:;dly (it it may I}e 
zeroe{1 but; r{~(:overable only fl'om dis{',ourse anal- 
ysis {1\] it can l}e ambiguous. T{} t)e {:onsistent 
with tim original at)t)roa(:h , the (:omt}lenmnt, s have 
been r(x;onsl;ru(:|;(~,{\[ who, r(; t){}ssil)le. Furl;herinor(% 
we have noted that not; a,ll verbs are equally sub- 
ject; U} pardcular types of {:ontexl;ua\] zeroing of 
(:ontplenmnl;s. a The l;ype (}\[ zeroing involved in 
th(: (~xmnt}le, s has l)(:(m recorded in tim |;ags and 
a,{lded U) the di('{;i{mary. 
3 Passivization and Topicalization 
The rccov(;ry {)f th(; c(}mt)hmmnt in passivization 
and |;opicalizati{nl is reasonably straig\]lt-forwar(l, 
{;hough passivizadon may lead t;{) misintert)r(',ta- 
t;ion of dm (:omI}lement. In a sent{;nc( ~, like (1) 
given l;hc distance l}(;twe{;n "orde, r" and "to dig", 
dm |;endency is 1,o mark th(; to-intinitivc as part 
of Lhe COml)lemIml; rath(u' than l}arl, {if the noun 
phrase. In cxamt}h;s (2) - (4) t;h{: separate{1 1}p's 
and np are, ill 1";1121;, parl; {}f |;he (?()MI,EX (:omph> 
:~e.g "He suggested dtat 1 should go and I agr(:e{1." 
zeroed %o go' vs * "lie sugg('sl;e{1 dmt l should g(} and 
I wan~ed." where it; is not 1)ossibh~ to zer(} '{;o go'. 
in(~n|,. 4 
(i) Orders were GIVEN to dig. \[np\] 
(2) Annual authorizations of $15 mi\].lion 
were ADDED for area vocational 
education programs that meet national 
defense needs for highly skilled .. 
\[np-pp :pval "for"\] 
(3) sets were developed and distributed, 
and lantern slide teaching sets on 2J 
pathology subjects were ADDED to the 
loan library of the Medical Illustra- 
tion Service. \[np-pp :pval "to"\] 
(4) The front part of my head was CALLED 
a face, and I could talk with Jr. 
\[np-np-pred\] 
(5) To that Rousseau could AGREE. 
\[pp :pval "to"\] 
(6) Even if that's all the promise he 
over GAVE... \[np\] 
(?) Arthur Williams had to be located, 
they AGREED. \[that-s\] 
Topicalization (;xamt)h;s (5) through (7) show 
thai, the complem{mt is readily a{:c{Bssil)l(;, ltow-- 
C,V(',I'~ CV{UI \]l{~,l'{ ~, WC, (;idll SC, C l;hal; in (~,Xaill- 
t)le (7) {;h(; {:{)mt}hmmnl; at}pears t{) need a 
(;ha, t-coinl}l{~nl(~nl;iz(',r wh{',n it ()CCtll'H at'l;el ' {;h(~ 
verb. Tol}i{;aliz~rtion (t()es n{}t alh)w a thai,- 
i:Oml)hmmnt, iz{!\] 
(8)*That Arthur Williams had to be locat-, 
ed, they agreed. 
so we either have to sl;al;(~ tluzI; "agree" takes a 
\]}al;e senI;(~,iic(~ or w(B h;~vo, to add material that iH 
not in tim texi,. 
4 Wh-clauses 
The cxist,(;n(',(; ()\[' "missinp;" {',omplenmnl;s f()r(:(',s 
one into dm uncomfortable 1)osidon (}t' tagging 
items t,hat (lo not app(~a.r ill I;\]m text. If {;he {-{im- 
i)lement ca.n be recov(u'ed st;raighd'orwardly from 
the surrom~(ling S(~III;(~IICO, (;he verb was marked far 
that (:omphmmnl;. IPor examt)le , in relal;ive clauses 
Lhe (;(inll)l(~in(?nt; 4;311 llSu0Jly I){~ r(~{;over{!(1. 
(9) ... to sit more patiently with 
what they have BOUGHT. \[np\] 
(I0) There is perhaps no value statemen~ 
on which people would more univer- 
sally AGREE than the statement that 
intense pain is bad. \[pp :pval "on"\] 
(ii) "What have you GOT on today"? 
she inquired. \[part-np :adval "on"J 
(12) Where were they all WALKING to? 
\[pp :pval "to"\] 
4NIl in |;\]m examples tlm capitalized vert) is I;h{', 
one in question. The conq)lemenI; with whi(:h the vea'l) 
should 1)e tagged appea,rs in square brackets. Unless 
otherwise specified dmsc exmnples are all from the 
(H)I'pllS. 
473 
(VERB :ORTH "adJust" 
:SUBC (((P-POSSING :PVAL ("to")) 
(PP :PVAL ("for .... to")) 
(NP-PP :PVAL ("for .... to")) 
(NP)(INTRANS)) 
:TAGS ((TAG :BYTE-NUMBER 6002672 
:SOURCE "brown" 
:LABEL (NP)) 
(TAG :BYTE-NUMBER 6203043 
:SOURCE "brown" 
:LABEL (PP :PVAL ("to"))) 
(TAG :BYTE-NUMBER 5717471 
:SOU RCE "brown" 
:LABEL (NP)) 
(TAG :BYTE-NUMBER 5537823 
:SOU RCE "brown" 
:LABEL (NP-PP :PVAL ("to"))) 
Figure 1: Partial Comlex Syntax dictionary entry for ADJUST. 
(13) .. School where their delicate 
transformation BEGAN. \[where\] 
In all the above cases, except for sentence (13) 
the complement can be unambiguously recovered. 
In sentence (9) they bought something, in (10) 
they would agree on the statement, and in (11) 
he/she has got somettfing on. However, even 
though "where" is to be reconstructed in both 
(12) and (13) only in (12) can it be unambigu- 
ously interpreted as being part of a pp (they were 
walking to somewhere); in (13) "where" could be 
interpreted as a pp or an advp (it began there/it 
began at school) so we classify it as having the 
class "where" (which is not a COMLEX comple- 
ment). 
5 Parentheticals 
hlrther "missing" complements were found in par- 
entheticals. 
(14) For example, to move (as the score 
REQUIRES) from the lowest -F-major 
register up to a barely audible ~N 
minor in four seconds, not skipping, 
at the same time, even one of the 
407 fingerings, seems a feat too 
absurd to consider, and it is to 
the flautist's credit that he remain- 
ed silent throughout the passage. 
(15) The ideal home, they AGREED, would 
be a small private house or a city 
apartment of four to five rooms, 
just enough for a family 
Reconstructing a TO-INF ~r "requires" in (14) 
would not be correct since "require" needs a NP- 
TO-INF (*the score requires to move), but it is 
not clear what the np could be (perhaps "the 
flautist"? the tone?). We felt these cases to be 
different from the other cases that we have dis- 
cussed above not only because of the difficulty of 
locating the complement but in the nature of the 
construction. This construction is more similar, in 
fact, to COMLEX's V-SAY feature which allows 
a verb like "say" to occur in sentence adjunct po- 
sitions without its complement, s 
(16) He said, "I want to see you." 
(17) "I", he said, "want to see you." 
(18) "I want", he said, "to see you." 
(19) "I want to see you," he said. 
Therefore, we concluded that the fact that these 
verbs can occur without their complements is a 
fact about the graminar of parentheticals. These 
examples, then, have been tagged as "parenthet- 
ical" and the new COMLEX feature PAREN- 
THETICAL has been given to the verbs which 
can occur in parentimtical constructions. 
6 The "Intransitive" Question 
We have encountered several types of zeroing in 
the corpus which occur with verbs which we would 
normally consider transitive (~ or verbs which can 
be intransitive only under special circumstances. 
For example, in isolation, "agree" may not occur 
intransitively unless it has a plural subject (COM- 
LEX intrans-recip class). 7 
(20) he agreed with her. 
(21) they agreed. (with each other) 
~Examples not from the corpus. 
aNote, that while ibr some "transitive" verbs are 
defined only as verbs which take NP complements, 
we consider verbs "transitive" that take any type of 
complement, including PPs 
7These examples are not from the corpus 
474 
(22) *he agreed. 
However, the data is rife with examples of in- 
transitive '!agree" occurring with a singular sub- 
jeer as seen by the following examlfles. 
(23) the gourmet insisted that it is 
done that way at the most fashion- 
able dinners, the girl reluctantly 
AGREED. 
(24) Why, it's all right, isn't it, 
Mother"7 Her woolly-minded 
parent AGREED "Of course, dear", 
she said. "It's only that I like 
to know where you go". 
(25) "He's one hell of a decent boy. 
I like that kid". "I AGREE, yes". 
(26)... he hoped to persuade him to 
become his assistant in research 
for the labor novel; if Breasted 
AGREED, they would get a car and 
tour the country, 
(27) ..spoke up, "plenty of it. Let 
me give Papa blood". The doctor 
AGREED, but explained that it 
would be necessary first to check 
Fred's blood to ascertain whether 
or not it was of the same type... 
We have estat)lished the. class INTRANS- 
ELLIPSIS for these cases and since we feel that 
the coInplement is "underlyingly" t)resent (the 
tagger is able. to supply the missing material) we 
would like to 1)e able to reconstruct a coral)l(> 
inent tot- the above instances of "agree". There 
scent to be twe 1)ossi/)ilities: (A) whe.re someone 
agrees with someone that-s (in (23) she agreed 
\[with him/that it was done that way\], s in (24) 
she agreed \[with her/that it was all right\], in (25) 
I agree \[with you/with that/that he is a decent 
boy\]); (B) a toqnfinitive (in (26) if he agreed \[to 
become his assistant\], in (27) he agreed (to let 
him/her give him blood\]). 
Even though this last example (27) I)resents 
some difli('ultics in re(:onstruction (1) because it 
o(:curs outside the senten(:e containing the verb 
and (2) beemlse there is a (:hange of mood fl:om 
imperative to inlii|itival, we can mMerstand that 
the doctor agreed to let \[hint\] give blood and re- 
construct a subject controlled to-infinitive. The 
COMLEX tag entry is 
(INTRANS-ELLIPSIS :ELLIP (to-inf-sc)) 
lntrans-ellii)sis is the nalne, of the (:lass and what 
is elided (:ell|p) is a subject eontrolh,d to infinitive 
(to-inf-sc, a COMLEX eolnplelnent). The others 
(senteImes 23-25) were tagged, arbitrarily, as hav- 
ing a prepositional phrase containing the l)reposi - 
tion "with" and they will be entered in the diet|o- 
nary with the tag INTRANS-EI~MPSIS :ELLII ) 
a l SThere is Mso th(; reading st e agreed to do it; that 
w&y" 
(pp :pval ("with")). The new COMLEX comple- 
ment INTRANS-ELLIPSIS is added to verbs of 
this type and therefore COMLEX differentiates 
between "true" intransitives 9 and eases like the 
above. 
W~ also found occurrences of "hat)itual" intran- 
sit;ives in the text. Even verbs which are always 
considered to be transitive, like "hit" for example, 
can be used intransitively if the action is consid- 
ered to be habitual. 10 
(28) That child always hits. 
(29) She always abbreviates, 
a very annoying habit. 
(30) He nagged constantly. 
We tagged these \[INTRANS-HABITUAL\].~1 
Since it seems that this ix really a grammatical 
question, as any verb (it would seem) may occur 
an a habitual intransitive, it has not been proposed 
as a COMLEX comph;inent. 
7 New Noun Phrase Complement, 
NADVP 
During ore: tagging, we tound that |her(; are a 
group of noun phrases that t)attern with adverbs 
and prepositional phrases, which we have called 
NADVI"s (Noun Adverbial Phrases). These 
arc divided into NADVP-TIME, NADVP-DIR, 
NP-NADVP-LOC and NADVP-MANNER. ()flea 
these expressions are adjuncts, but in the follow- 
ing examples, they are comt)lelnents since they are. 
required to t)roduce a grammatical sentence.(The 
examples in this section are not from the corpus 
but similar examt)les were fo(md) 
The meeting took 3 hours. \[nadvp-time\] 
*The meeting took. 
He headed home~east~that way. \[nadvp-dir\] 
*He headed. 
He put the stakes every five feet. 
\[np-nadvp-loc\] 
*He put the stakes. 
He put it that way. \[np-nadvp-manner\] 
*He put it. 
These noun phrases may be substituted tbr by ad- 
verbs or prepositional phrases. 
The meeting took 3 hours. \[nadvp-time\] 
The meeting took long. \[advp\] 
He headed home/east/that way. \[nadvp-dir\] 
He headed to the store. \[pp\] 
tie put the stakes every five feet. 
\[np-nadvp-loc\] 
He put the stakes at designated places. 
\[pp\] 
"e.g. sh'.ep, in It('. slept and arriw; in he arrived 
I°EXaml)les no|; DOln |;it{; corpus 
11We use intrans-habitual to rc.fer to generic situs- 
lions as we.ll, e.g. "As a group, three year ohl children 
hit." 
475 
He put it that way. \[np-nadvp-manner\] 
He put it firmly. \[nadvp-dir\] 
In general these verbs do not take regular np com- 
plenlents, at least not with the same meaning. 
The meeting took/lasted 3 hours. 
He took/*lasted the car. 
He headed/went home. 
He headed/*went the cow down the road. 
*He put the stakes the table. 
*He put it the interest. 
8 NUNITP: to Tag or not to Tag 
Another (:lass of noun t)hrases caused us great soul 
searching. A number of verbs take very particular 
noun phrases. Verbs like "increase", "decrease" 
and "expand" take complement groups which re- 
quire a noun with the subclass NUNIT. ~2 These 
verbs occurred t)redoIninately in environments like 
The price increased 5 to :tO percent. 
The price increased 5 dollars a share. 
We decided not to make this a separate NP coni- 
plement for several reasons: (1) these verl)s also 
take regular NP complements, though in some in- 
stances (as in the below example) the meaning of 
the verb changc.s. As COMLEX does not sense 
disambiguate the semantic difference does not af~ 
feet the dictionary entry. 
"Those vitamins increased his appetite." 
(2)the NUNITPs are not syntacticly distin- 
guished; other nouns occur with similar struc- 
tures. 
"He ate 5 to :tO pickles (a day)." 
On the other hand, the increase-type verbs can 
appear with a whole range of nunitp comt)lements 
(cornpleinents which contain an nunitp 1at: 
The price increased (5Z) to $10 (a share). 
The price increased (SY,) from $10 (a share). 
The price increased from $10 (a share) to 
$30 (a share). 
The price increased to 30 dollars from i0 
dollars. 
The price increased by 5Z to end at $i00. 
whereas verbs like "eat" can not 
*He ate to/from 10 pickles. 
*He ate by 10~ to 20 pickles (a day). 
Mthough we decided not to add NUNITP as 
a separate NP complement, we have let the 
NUNITP tags for verb complements remain, to re- 
flect the information that in our corpus this type 
t~These art'. nouns which can appear in quantifier 
phrases including a scalar adjectiw~ before another 
noun o1 as a head noun tollowed by a prel)ositional 
phrase containing a scalar mmn (a two FOOT long 
board/a board two FEET in length). 
laThe nunitp is S/dollars in the examples 
of verb occurs almost exclusively with this type of 
NP. Wc have added a separate frame group with 
the name NUNITP-TO-I{ANGE which includes 
the conq)leinents mentioned abow~'. Although, it 
is called NUNITP to underline the fact that or- 
dinarily the nouns that occur are NUNITs or at'('. 
coerced into being NUNITs in this structure ~4, the. 
NPs are not formally distinguished as such in the 
notation of the fl'ame group. The fact (hal; these 
noun phrases, and the NADVPs above, behave in 
a manner distinct Dom other NPs is recognized 
and discussed in Ross's paper on Defective Noun 
Phrases (Ross, 1995) 
9 Tagging Improves COMLEX 
Aside fl'om presenting these interesting and llil- 
expected phenomena, tagging has tightened ut) 
the classification of some coml)lements, leading 
in the direction of combining some complements 
ghat had been separate and re-grouping oth- 
ers. COMLGX had a frame-group which classi- 
fie<l together a number of wh-comt)lements. Now 
there is a different grouping with the original 
"whether"/"if"/"what" (WIt-S comt)lement) and 
"how" (HOW-S, PI'-HOW-TO-INF) augmented 
by "where"/"when" / "how much" / "how Inany" 
(WHERE-WHEN-S). This last; group was estM> 
lished for verbs like "define" and "forecast" which 
do not take members of the original fi'ame groups. 
"Last year, the Supreme Court DEFINED 
when companies, such as military 
contractors, may defend themselves." 
*The Supreme Court defined if companies 
may defend themselves. 
"Ptolemy's problem is to FORECAST 
where, against the inverted bowl of 
night, some particular light will be 
found at future times." 
*The problem is to forecast how to find 
the light. 
?The problem is to forecast how he will 
react. 
Tags l;hat were not deemed worthy to be- 
come COMLEX complements for various reasons 
(e.g. rarity or sublanguage use) are defined in 
the COMLEX Syntax Mmmal for ~l%gged Entri(!s 
(Meyers, 1995). All in all, our tagging has been 
interesting and informative. We have acquired not 
only statistical data on the occurrence of colnple- 
ments in texts but information on possible gaps 
in COMLEX's syntactic coverage which we moved 
to rectify, when it seemed justified, and we have a 
record in our tagged data of those instances which 
we. did not add to C()MM';X classes. We have 
HCompare "The price increased by five percent to a 
total of 2,000 dollars per share." "The contents of each 
barrel increased by 5 pickles to a total of 25 pickles 
per barrel." 
476 
often been ~sked why we did not m~u:llin(; t~g in- 
stead of painstakingly hand tagging. We drink our 
response now is obvious, with m~u:hinc tagging we 
would not have been abl(; to r(;(:ogniz(; ~m(\[ r(~(:or(1 
these facts about language. 
Acknowledgements 
1)esign and pr(;paration of (\]OMLI~\]X Syntax 
has been sul)porte(1 by the Adwm(:(;d I{esear(:h 
Projects Ag(;n(:y through tim ()tti(:('~ of N;Lwfl Re- 
s(;~r(:h un(ler Awards No. MI)A972-92-.I-\]0\] 6 an(l 
N00014-90-J-1851, and The q\]:ust('~(!s of tim Uni- 
v('rsity of l'(;m~sylvanim 
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