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<Paper uid="C02-1031">
  <Title>The Chinese Aspect System and its Semantic Interpretation</Title>
  <Section position="2" start_page="1" end_page="6" type="metho">
    <SectionTitle>
2. The overview of Chinese
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    <Paragraph position="0"> complex aspect Both Chinese and English have complex aspect forms. Halliday (1976) describes forty eight possible forms of English tense and elaborates the ways in which the complex tense forms are combined. In Hallidays tense theory, the complex tense forms of English are recursively built up from primary tense to secondary tense, to tertiary tense, etc.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="1"> Compared with English, the Chinese aspect system  is rather different. In the Chinese aspect system, the combination of individual aspects is much more semantically restricted and much less grammatically regular than that in English. As a consequence, it gives rise to more difficulties in both theoretical explanation and practical implementation. We look into the details of this below.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="2"> We propose that the Chinese aspect system has basically seventeen simple primary aspect forms  . They are shown diagrammatically in  Chinese has no morphological tense markers. Tense in Chinese is realized lexically.  It is our opinion that the Chinese aspect system is actually composed of both aspect morphemes (-le, -zhe, -guo4, etc.) and aspect adverbials (Yang, 1999, 2001).</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="3"> name form name form  The V in the aspect forms denotes verb; the / shows disjunction; the name of each individual aspect was chosen based on its intuitive semantic function. The unmarkedperfect aspect Yi Jing +V+Liao (yi3jing1+V+le) is regarded as a simple aspect because it has the same function as the marked-perfect aspect Yi Jing +V (yi3jing1+V). They differ only lexically. The situation is the same for the unmarked-remote-experiential aspect Ceng Jing +V+Guo (ceng2jing1+V+guo) and the markedremote-experiential aspect Ceng Jing +V (ceng2 jing1+V). The seventeen simple primary aspect forms belong to the three subsystems of perfective, imperfective (Comrie, 1976) or future-existing  according to the semantic properties in individual cases. Some simple primary aspect forms can combine to form various kinds of complex aspect. We call a combination involving two types of simple primary aspect an aspect of secondary type; the combination with three types of simple primary aspect is an aspect of tertiary type. By analogy, we also have an aspect of quaternary type; this is the maximum possibility: no further types are attested (Yang, 1999, 2001). The combination capacities of different simple primary aspect forms differ. For example, the simple primary aspect unmarked-durative V+ Zhao (V+zhe), which belongs to the subsystem of imperfective, combines with several other types of simple primary aspect to construct complex aspect forms as shown in Figure 2. Some simple primary aspect forms, e.g. the simple primary  aspect unmarked-experiential V+Guo (V+guo), have a very restricted capacity to combine with other simple aspect forms to build complex aspect forms.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="4"> 3. The semantic interpretation of  Chinese complex aspect We briefly look into the profile of tense, aspect, and situation type, before examining closely the semantic temporal relations of complex aspect forms. We adopt Comries theoretical framework of tense and aspect. As far as tense is concerned, then, the reference point is typically the present moment, and tenses locate situations either at the same time as the present moment, or prior to the present moment, or subsequent to the present moment (Comrie, 1985, p.14).</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="5"> Aspects are different ways of viewing the  It is controversial whether to include futurity within the aspect category. We favor Hallidays tense theory (Halliday, 1976). We also agree with Baches viewpoint it seems to me not only convenient but also legitimate to accept future TEMPORALITY as a genuine member of the metacategory of tense (Bache, 1995, p. 266). Compatible claims are also made by Dahl (Dahl, 1985, p.102-112). Also see Gong Q-Y (1995). internal temporal constituency of a situation. (Comrie, 1976, p.3) Aspect is determined by the type of process  (in terms of systemic linguistics), the type of object, and the specific allocation of event initial time, speaking time and reference time. The aspectual properties of different kinds of event may be generalized in terms of Vendlers four situation types: states, activities, accomplishments, and achievements (Vendler, 1967). Situation types have nothing to do with the referential time of the event and are influenced only by process, object, and the time point or time interval over which the event holds.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="6"> We define several predicates to be used to express temporal relations based on and slightly altering those of Allen (1984). The important ones are:  ) correspond to Allens predicates BEFORE(t1, t2) and EQUAL(t1, t2) respectively. The difference between Allens predicates and ours is that we use time points for definitions rather than time intervals. The reason for this slight change is that when the system is going to generate an aspect expression, either a simple aspect or a complex aspect, the breakdown into the relevant time points is often needed.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="7">  on the time axis. Three additional predicates are defined to meet the particular needs of expressing the temporal relations entailed by Chinese aspects. The predicate  A process consists potentially of three components: (i) the process itself; (ii) participants in the process; (iii) circumstances associated with the process. (Halliday, 1985, p.101) the time point t</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="9"> as the event initial time, the event finishing time, the reference time, and the speaking time respectively.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="10"> From a theoretical point of view, to generate complex aspect forms not only must the temporal relations of individual aspect forms and the complex aspect forms be correctly represented, but the semantic requirements for the combination must also be met. What determines the combining possibility between different aspect forms is their own intrinsic logical temporal attributes. When the intrinsic logical temporal attributes of each aspect type are in harmony, the two aspect forms can combine; otherwise they cannot. We have observed the following principled conditions for this. First, it is feasible to express the process in each individual aspect form before the combination is made. Second, each individual aspect form has its own semantic function which is different from that of others. Third, in a specific situation, when two different aspect forms combine, the reference time points of each aspect type may move according to the temporal attributes of the combined aspecthowever, no matter how reference time points change, the event initial time must remain unique, i.e. there must only be a single event initial time to which the complex aspect refers. If there is any conflict over this, the two aspects are incompatible with each other and the combination cannot be made. Finally, the combination must be in a proper order. This means that the selection of the aspect which is to serve as primary aspect has important consequences. We take two complex aspect forms as examples to illustrate these points.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="11"> The first example is the secondary aspect long-and-unmarked-durative [?] Zhi +V+ Zhao (yi1zhi2+V+zhe). The combination is composed of two simple primary aspect forms: the unmarked-durative aspect V+Zhao (V+zhe)</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="13"> here not only refers to the event intrinsic terminating point, which an event of accomplishment situation type usually has, but it also refers to the time point at which an event of other situation types is terminated by some kind of outside force.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="14"> (UDR) and the long-durative aspect [?] Zhi +V (yi1zhi2+V) (LDR). Examples 1, 2 and 3 illustrate the two simple primary aspect forms and the complex aspect respectively.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="15">  The simple primary aspect of unmarked-durative is realized lexically by the marker Zhao (zhe). The unmarked-durative aspect indicates either a dynamic or static durative state of the situation; it means that the situation begins before the reference time and is continuing at the reference time point. The temporal relations of the unmarked-durative</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="17"> presume further here, for present purpose,</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="19"> which is realized lexically by the marker [?] Zhi (yi1zhi2), indicates a relatively long durative state of the situation; it means that the process holds over a relatively long time duration from the event initial time to the event finishing time and that the event finishing time equals the reference time. The temporal relations of the long-durative aspect</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="21"> This is represented graphically in Figure 4.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="22"> The dotted line denotes the long duration.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="24"> In example 3, because the event initial time t</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="26"> of the unmarked-durative aspect V+Zhao (V+ zhe) precedes the reference time point and it is an unfixed time point which can at any point precede the reference time, it can also be identical to the event initial time of the long-durative aspect [?] Zhi +V (yi1zhi2+V).</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="27"> The two individual aspect forms can share a unique event initial time so that a specific framework of temporal relations for the complex aspect can be established. In this case, we say that the two individual aspect forms are compatible; the combination can be made. The complex aspect indicates a long existing and continuing state of affairs with respect to the reference time. The temporal relations of the long-and-unmarked-durative</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="29"> . This is represented graphically in Figure 5.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="31"> Comparing Figure 5 with Figure 3 and Figure 4, we can see that for the unmarked-durative aspect V+Zhao (V+zhe), the event initial time after the combination comes to far precede the reference time. For the long-durative aspect [?] Zhi +V (yi1zhi2+V), the event finishing time does not equal the reference time any more, which means that the situation is continuing.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="32"> The simple aspect forms differ in terms of how restricted they are in their usage with particular situation types or process types. In the design of the system network, it is necessary to arrange the logical dependencies such that less restricted aspect forms are made dependent on more restricted aspect forms.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="33"> This avoids potentially incompatible logical conditions being required. For example, compared with other simple primary aspect forms, the unmarked-durative aspect V+Zhao (V+zhe) (Figure 3) has more restricted requirements in its usage, therefore, it should be selected first; then it combines with the long-durative aspect [?] Zhi +V (yi1zhi2+V) to form the complex aspect long-and-unmarked-durative [?] Zhi +V+Zhao (yi1zhi2+V+zhe). The secondary aspect long-and-unmarked-durative [?] Zhi +V+Zhao (yi1zhi2+V+zhe) can further combine with another primary aspect, e.g. the unmarked-future-existing aspect (UFT) which is realized lexically by Jiang (jiang1), to form a tertiary aspect type: Jiang +[?] Zhi +V+Zhao (jiang1+yi1zhi2+V+zhe). We take this as another example to illustrate the aspect combining conditions; see example 4 below.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="34">  (jiang1+V) means that the process will hold sometime in the future. The temporal relations of the unmarked-future-existing aspect are: t</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="36"> ). In example 4, the temporal relation between t</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="38"> which corresponds to an achievement situation. This is represented graphically in Figure 6.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="40"> When any aspect form combines with the unmarked-future-existing aspect, its own internal temporal relations as a whole will not be modified. The only change is that the event initial time may move. So when the long-and-unmarked-durative aspect [?] Zhi +V+Zhao (yi1 zhi2+V+zhe) combines with the unmarked-future-existing aspect Jiang +V (jiang1+V), the temporal relations of the long-and-unmarked-durative aspect [?] Zhi +V+Zhao (yi1zhi2+V+zhe)</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="42"/>
    <Section position="1" start_page="6" end_page="6" type="sub_section">
      <SectionTitle>
This
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      <Paragraph position="0"> is represented graphically in Figure 7.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="2"> inherited from the long-and-unmarked-durative aspect [?] Zhi +V+Zhao (yi1zhi2+V+zhe), is unique, and the reference time t r equals the speaking time t s , the tertiary aspect Jiang +[?] Zhi +V+ Zhao (jiang1+yi1zhi2+V+zhe) has the following temporal relations: t</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="4"> . This is represented graphically in</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="6"> We can see from Figure 8 that although the viewpoint of the situation changes after the combination, a unique event initial time can nevertheless be established. The event initial time of the long-and-unmarked-durative aspect [?] Zhi +V+Zhao (yi1zhi2+V+zhe) still functions in the complex aspect.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="7"> Now let us look into one further example to see the situation when two aspect forms cannot combine. The simple primary aspect long-durative [?] Zhi +V (yi1zhi2+V) and the simple primary aspect activity-progressive (APG), which is lexically realized by the marker Zheng Zai (zheng4zai4), are not compatible. The two aspect forms cannot combine.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="8"> Example 5 is unacceptable.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="9">  gressive state of the situation holding since a specific time point (event initial time t</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="11"> Comparing the temporal relations of the long-durative aspect [?] Zhi +V (yi1zhi2+V) in Figure 4 with the temporal relations of activity-progressive aspect Zheng Zai +V (zheng4 zai4+V) in Figure 9, we can see that the two aspect forms have obviously different event initial time points. One has an event initial time which precedes the reference time; another has an event initial time which equals the reference time. A unique event initial time cannot be found. Therefore the two types of aspect are incompatible and cannot combine.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="12"> 4. The implementation of the system To generate a specific aspect expression, temporal relations as described in the last section must be taken. Semantic inputs representing the temporal relations are a set of  points is expressed in a specific concept, which could correspond to a specific time value, showing its relative position on the time axis; e.g. at-past, at-present, or at-future. The semantic inputs are represented in the form of a set of examples making up a testsuite. Using the predicates described in section 3, appropriate temporal relations can be automatically built by the system. Then the system traverses a grammar network and chooses appropriate grammatical features by use of relevant inquiries and choosers (Matthiessen &amp; Bateman, 1991, Teich &amp; Henschel, 1991). The main function of choosers is to guide traversal of the grammar and choose grammatical features by asking the relevant inquiries and testing all the required conditions that they give. An inquiry contains a set of conditions to test whether the given inputs meet some set of semantic requirements. For example, the inquiry used to test the unmarked-durative aspect V+Zhao (V+zhe) contains the following conditions: t</Paragraph>
    </Section>
  </Section>
  <Section position="3" start_page="6" end_page="6" type="metho">
    <SectionTitle>
, the
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    <Paragraph position="0"> process is not of intensive-relational type with verbs like Shi (shi4, be) or adjectives describing properties, and not of possessive type with verb You (you3, have). Once a feature is chosen, realization rules attached to the feature place constraints on lexical selection and syntactic structure. Following traversal of the grammar the combined lexical and grammatical constraints are resolved in order to give the final lexicalized grammatical structure.</Paragraph>
  </Section>
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