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<Paper uid="C90-3039">
  <Title>Meaning Representation and Text Planning.</Title>
  <Section position="2" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="metho">
    <SectionTitle>
1 Text Meaning in Analysis &amp; Generation.
</SectionTitle>
    <Paragraph position="0"> Understanding a text involves determining its propositional content as well as detecting pragmatic meaning elements, those pertaining to the speech situation and to the nature of the discourse producer's goals. ~ A high-quality natural language generator must be capable of expressing the entire set of meaning types in a natural language. The input to a generator must, therelore, express all of the kinds of meanings to be rendered in the output text. This requires a convenient knowledge representation scheme for the input, as well as actual knowledge (in the form of heuristic selection rules) about interactions between the input and elements of the output.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="1"> The acquisition of this knowledge must be informed by systematic field work on such linguistic phenomena as locus, topic and comment, speech acts, speaker attitudes, or reference-related phenomena (anaphora, deixis, ellipsis, definite description, etc.). When these phenomena are studied in computational linguistics, they are usually approached from the standpoint of language understanding. The types of activities in generation often differ from those in analysis (see, e.g., Nirenburg and Raskin, 1987).</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="2"> ~Ib highlight the requirements of natural language generation, we will describe a generation-oriented approach to speech acts and attitudinal knowledge.</Paragraph>
    <Section position="1" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="sub_section">
      <SectionTitle>
1.1 Speech Acts.
</SectionTitle>
      <Paragraph position="0"> We model a text producer/consumer as having, in addition to knowledge about the grammar and lexis of a natural language and knowledge about the world, an inventory of world-related and communication-related goals and plans that are known to lead to the achievement of these goals.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="1"> Producing text, then, is understood as a planning process to achieve a goal. Being able to achieve goals through communication can be seen as broadening the range of tools an agent has for attaining its goals. It is important to distinguish clearly between the producer's goal and plan inventory and a set of active goal and plan ins tances which constitute the text producer's agenda. When the decision is made to try to achieve a go~d by rhetorical means, one of the available rhetorical plans corresponding to this goal is selected for processing. Based on knowledge recorded in this plan structure, the agent produces a new, languagedependent, structure, a text plan, as an intermediate step in producing a text.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="2"> The process of natural language understanding in our approach will be modeled as a plan recognition process in a similar conceptual architecture. In understanding, it is necessary to determine not only the propositional content but also the illocutionary force of each utterance. This involves reconstructing (on the basis of the propositional content and the knowledge of the speech situation) the text 2We decided to use the term 'producer' for the author of a text and the speaker in a dialog; and the term 'consumer' to indicate the reader of a text or a hearer in a dialog.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="4"> producer's goals, in order to decide if an utterance constitutes a direct or an indirect speech act, calculating any added non-propositional, implicit elements of meaning.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="5"> In generation, as we have seen, the task is to decide, on the basis of the communication situation and knowledge of the producer's intentions, whether to achieve a given goal via rhetorical means. If so, it is also necessary to decide whether it will be realized in the target text directly or indirectly. If a direct speech act is chosen, one must further determine whether to lexicalize the speech act through the use of a performative verb (e.g., promise, order, etc.).</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="6"> The treatment of speech acts is thus always accomplished using links between the set of producer's current goals and the propositional content. The order of operations, however, differs depending on whether this treatment is a part of analysis or generation. To illustrate, suppose an agent is cold and has a goal to be warm. To achieve this goal, we construct a plan tree, with the goal be-warm as the root, and various plans of action as sub-trees (see Figure 1).</Paragraph>
    </Section>
  </Section>
  <Section position="3" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="metho">
    <SectionTitle>
BE WARM
</SectionTitle>
    <Paragraph position="0"> self-action delegation go close put on ... physical action</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="2"> point ~ art point to a direct indirect open window sweater speech act Inymch act lexieal synUtctie  In analysis, the tree is traversed bottom-up: the consumer has direct access to the input utterance and uses it as a clue to reconstruct the producer's goals. If complete extraction of meaning is to be achieved, it is crucial to know whether an utterance realizes a direct or an indirect speech act, In generation, the tree will be traversed top-down. If the producer's choice is to achieve his goal through rhetorical means, he can generate any of the following three utterances:  (1) I order you to close the window.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="3"> (2) Close the window, please.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="4"> (3) It's cold in here.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="5"> Now, even though (3) differs in propositional meaning from (1) and (2), the distinction between direct speech act (1) or (2) and indirect speech act (3) does not matter from  the point of view of the producer's goals. In TAMERLAN the representation of both Close the window and It is cold in here will contain a pointer (in TAMERLAN the filler of theproducer-intention slot of every clause frame) to the same plan node, in this case, 'request-action.' The fact that in the above utterances, the request-action is realized as a command or a statement pertains to text, not domain planning.</Paragraph>
    <Section position="1" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="sub_section">
      <SectionTitle>
1.2 Producer Attitude.
</SectionTitle>
      <Paragraph position="0"> Our reasons for introducing attitudes as an explicit part of the representation of the meaning of a natural language clause are manifold. In what follows we will review three (partially interconnected) reasons. Representing attitudes helps to a) support reasoning about producer goals; b) highlight the argumentative structure of a discourse; c) provide a convenient vehicle for representing m(xlal meanings.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="1"> Almost all spoken and written discourse involves the participants' opinions, so much so that producing a perfectly objective text is an almost impossible task. Within the set of possible goals relating to generating text, the introduction (explicit or implicit, lexicalized or not) of the producer's opinions and points of view serves two goals: * modifying the consumer's model of the producer by stating facts (including opinions) about the latter which are not in principle observable by the consumer null * modifying the consumer's opinions by stating producer's opinions about facts of the world (the latter can in principle be observed by the consumer) The above distinctions only become visible if one decides to represent attitudes overtly. Once this decision is made, it becomes clear that it brings about better description possibilities for additional linguistic phenomena, such as the argumentative structure of discourse. It has been observed (e.g., Anscombre and Ducrot, 1983) that texts have a well-defined argumentative structure which a) reflects the producer's current goals and b) influences such processes as the ordering of text components and lexical selection in generation. The argumentative structure of a text is realized (or, in text understanding, detected) through linguistic means such as the use of scalar adverbs ('only', 'even', 'almost', etc.), connectives ('but', 'since'), adjectives ('unbearable', 'fascinating', etc.). Sets of such lexical items may have to be considered equivalent from a purely semantic point of view, but different in a facet of their pragmatic effect known as argumentative orientation. For example, to illustrate the interplay between semantic content and argumentative orientation (i.e. the producer's attitude towards an event), compare (4) and (5), which have opposite truth conditions, but the same pragmatic value -- from both (4) and (5) the consumer will infer that the producer regards Burma as an inefficient sleuth. In this example it is sufficient to retain pragmatic information concerning the producer's judgment of Burma while the semantic differences (induced by the use of 'few' versus 'none at all') can be disregarded. However, in other contexts the semantics will matter much more -- consider, for instance,  (6) for which there can be no paraphrase With 'no clues at all.' (4) Nestor Burma found few clues. Nobody was surprised.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="2"> (5) Nestor Burma found no clues at all. Nobody was surprised.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="3"> (6) Nestor Burma found few clues. But it was  still better than having none at all.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="4"> The difference between (7) and (8), whose truth conditions are similar, is purely argumentative (or attitudinal) -- (7) expresses a positive (optimistic!) attitude, (8) the opposite point of view. This example shows how crucial the extraction of the argumentative structure is, since it is the only clue for the (in)acceptability of (9).</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="5">  (7) Nestor has a little money.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="6"> (8) Nestor has little money.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="7"> (9) *Nestor has little money. He wouldn't mind  spending some on chocolate.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="8"> 220 2 1Tinnily, we use the attitude markers as a means of exgressing modality. Traditionally, formal semanticists have extended first order logic to modal logic in order to account lbr mc~lals. This places the modals at a purely semantic level, as a result of which the it is difficult to distinguish between what is observable for both producer and consumer and what is not (opinions, beliefs, etc.). We consider that expressions like 'perhaps,' 'possibly,' 'it is almost certain that' are clues as to what the producer's belieg\]s and attitudes are towards facts of the world and help the consumer modify or update his model of the producer. It is for the above reasons that we decided to include a de, ailed specification of producer attitudes into the input sp(&gt;cilication for generation.</Paragraph>
    </Section>
  </Section>
  <Section position="4" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="metho">
    <SectionTitle>
2 The Structure of TAMERLAN,
</SectionTitle>
    <Paragraph position="0"> TAMERLAN is a frame-based representation language that hat; the following basic entity types: text, clause, relation, proposition, attitude and pointer (to the producer's current plan). A text frame indexes a set of clauses and a set of ):elations comprising an input text. TAMERLAN clauses delimit the propositional and pragmatic content of Utrget language utterances. Relations represent links among ew;:nts, objects, or textual objects. In what follows, we will illustrate the structure of TAMERLAN concentrating on the', representation of attitudes and agenda pointers (corresponding to speech acts). An exhaustive definition and de.~cription of TAMERLAN is given in Defrise and Nirenbu~g (in preparation).</Paragraph>
    <Section position="1" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="sub_section">
      <SectionTitle>
2.1 Representation of Attitudes.
</SectionTitle>
      <Paragraph position="0"> Each TAMERLAN clause contains one or several attitude slots. Each is composed of four lacets: the type facet, the value facet, the scope facet, and the 'attributed-to' facet.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="1"> The possible types of attitudes are : ,t, epistemic (with values taken from the {0,1 } interval to account for expressions like perhaps; the end-points of the interval intuitively correspond to the values of impossible and necessary); ,~, evaluative (with values taken from a similar scale, with the endpoints interpreted as, roughly, 'the best' 'the worst,' the midpoint as 'neutral,' and other intermediate points used to account for expressions like 'fairly interesting'); ,~ deontic (ranging from 'unfair' to 'fair'); expectation (ranging from 'expected' to 'surprise').</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="2"> The organization of the above types is similar -- their value ranges are all one type of scale. The differences ~unong them are semantic. The above classification is an enhancement of Reichman's treatment of &amp;quot;context spaces&amp;quot; (1985: 56). We use the terminology (if not exactly the spirit) of her distinction among the epistemic, evaluative and dex)ntic issue-type context spaces. Context space is Reichman's term for a discourse segment. The iss~,e context space roughly COIXesponds to our attitude component, while the non-issue context space provides a sh~low taxonomy for discourse segment types (Reichma~ lists comment, narrative support, and nonnarrative support as the non-issue type values).</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="3"> Every attitude type has a scale of values associated with it. The value component specifies a region on the appropriate scale. Though the semantics of all scales is different, the set of values is the same -- we represent all attitude scales as {0,1 } intervals. Thus, the value (&gt; 0.8) on the scale of evaluative-saliency will be lexically realizable through the modifier important(ly), while the same value on the deontic scale will end up being realized as should or ought to.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="4"> qt~e attributed-to component of the attitude simply binds the attitude to a particular cognitive agent (which may be the producer of the utterance or some other known or unknown agent), who is responsible for the content of the utterance. This is important for understanding reported speech, and more generally the polyphony phenomena, in the sense of Ducrot (1984). Ducrot's theory of polyphony, an approach to extended reported speech treatment, provides a framework for dealing with the interpretation of a number of semantic and pragmatic phenomena, e.g., the difference in meaning and use between 'since' and 'bed cause,' certain particularities of negative sentences, etc. The scope of the attitude representation pinpoints the entity to which this attitude is expressed. The values of the scope can be the whole proposition, a part of it or another attitude value, with its scope. In understanding the text the consumer notes the attitudes of the producer to the content. The attitudes can be expressed toward  events, objects, properties or other attitudes (see 10 -13, respectively).</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="5"> (10) The train, unfortunately, left at 5 p.m.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="6"> (11) This book is interesting.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="7"> (12) The meeting was reprehensibly short.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="8"> (13) Unfortunately, I ought to leave.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="9"> McKeown and Elhadad (1989) &amp;quot;also treat argumentative  scales aid attitudinals in a generation environment. They, however, consider these phenomena as part of syntax, thus avoiding the need to add a special pragmatic component to their system. This decision is appropriate from the point of view of minimizing the changes in an existing generator due to the inclusion of attitude information. However, if compatibility is an overriding concern, introducing a separate component is a more appropriate choice.</Paragraph>
    </Section>
    <Section position="2" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="sub_section">
      <SectionTitle>
2.2 Representation of Producer's Goals.
</SectionTitle>
      <Paragraph position="0"> We overtly refer to the producer's goals in each TAMERLAN clause, using the 'producer-intention' slot. The filler of this slot is a pointer to an action or a plan in the producer agenda. The producer agenda, which is a necessary background component of text planning, contains representations of active goal and plan instances. Since we are interested in discourse situations, we take into account only the goals and plans thata) presuppose the situation with at least two cognitive agents and b) relate to rhetorio cal (and not physical-action) realizations of goals.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="1"> To illustrate our use of the 'producer-intention' slot in text generation, consider the task of generating from a TMR which we will gloss as 'The speaker promises to return to his current location at 10 o'clock.' Depending on the context and other parameters, the producer may decide to generate 1 will return at 10 or l promise to return at 10. In the latter case the decision is made to realize the meaning of the speech act lexically. The mechanism for this is as follows: traversing the producer-intention slot the producer gets to the relevant point in the agenda, which is the (primitive) plan PROMISE. 3 Since the realization  rules for speech acts prescribe their realization as firstperson-singular clauses with the lexical realizations of the nmnes of appropriate speech plans (acts), the natural language clause I promise X is produced, and, eventually, X is expanded into the subordinate natttral language clause to return at 10. The central point is that the former natural language clause is the realization of a pointer in the input, not an entire text representation clause. 4</Paragraph>
    </Section>
  </Section>
  <Section position="5" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="metho">
    <SectionTitle>
3 The Text Plan Language (TPL).
</SectionTitle>
    <Paragraph position="0"> The text plan is an intermediate data structure which is the obtained through the application of the text planning rules to TMRs. TPs serve as input to the semantics-to-syntax mapping rules that produce f-structures which in turn serve as input to the syntactic realization module.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="1"> While TMR does not specify the boundaries and order of sentences in the output text, the ways of treating co-reference or the selection of the appropriate lexical units (both open-class items and such closed-class ones as realizations of producer attitudes and discourse cohesion markers, connectives) for the target text, TP contains this information. Additionally, the text planning stage also produces values for such features as definiteness, tense and mood.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="2"> A text plan is an hierarchically organized set of frames.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="3"> The root of this hierarchy is the text structure frame which, notably, contains the slot &amp;quot;has-as-part&amp;quot; whose value is an ordered set of plan sentence frames, S_i. A plan sentence frame contains a slot &amp;quot;subtype&amp;quot; whose values include &amp;quot;simple,&amp;quot; &amp;quot;complex,&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;and.&amp;quot; Another slot contains an ordered list of plan clause frames comprising the sentence. A plan clause frame contains the realization, through lexical choice and feature values, of both propositional and pragmatic meanings in the input. It lists the realizations of the head of the proposition and pointers to plan-role frames that contain realizations of the case roles of this proposition. (Sometimes the filler of a case role slot in a plan clause will be a pointer to another plan clause.) Realizations of producer attitudes pertaining to the clause and of cohesion markers which realize some of TAMERLAN relations are also included, as is an indication of whether a given clause is a subordinate clause or a matrix clause in a complex sentence. The plan role frames are composed in a similar fashion.</Paragraph>
  </Section>
  <Section position="6" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="metho">
    <SectionTitle>
4 The Mechanism of Text Planning.
</SectionTitle>
    <Paragraph position="0"> Text planning can be understood as a mapping problem between sets of expressions in TAMERLAN and TPL. The mapping is achieved through the application of heuristic rules of the situation-action kind. The rules take as input elements of the input representation and mapped them into elements of a text plan based the various meaning components in the input and their combinations. In addition, the heuristic rules take into account the state of affairs in the communication situation, modelled in our system as a static set of pragmatic factors that determine the stylistic slant of a text. Our pragmatic factors are a subset of the rhetorical goals suggested by Hovy (1987) and include 4In natural language understanding, one will expect to obtain as input some full-fledged natural language clauses whose real meaning is purely pragmatic. Consider, for instance, the sentence&amp;quot;I hereby inform you that X.&amp;quot; The meaning of&amp;quot;I hereby inform you&amp;quot; will represented as a filler of the &amp;quot;producer-intention&amp;quot; slot or as an attitude.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="1"> such factors as simplicity, formality, colorfulness, etc.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="2"> Finally, the heuristic rules can take into account elements of the text plan under construction -- those elements that were produced by previously triggered rules.</Paragraph>
    <Section position="1" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="sub_section">
      <SectionTitle>
4.1 Control.
</SectionTitle>
      <Paragraph position="0"> In our generator, we adopt a blackboard model of control.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="1"> This means that the work in the system is performed by a set of semi-autonomous knowledge sources which apply various heuristic rules or run specialized algorithms in a distributed fashion. There is no centralized sequential model of control. The activated knowledge som'ce instances are collected in the processing agenda(s). After a knowledge source instantiation &amp;quot;fires,&amp;quot; its results are listed on one of several public data structures, blackboards, supported by our system. The balckboards are public in the sense that subsequent knowledge source instantiations can draw knowledge needed for their application from the blackboard spaces in which outputs of other knwoledge source instances is recorded. Elements of TMR and'IT' are recorded on one of the blackboards, as are various intermediate processing results, such as those produced in the process of lexical selection.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="2"> Efficiency of a computational architecture can be controlled and improved by introducing special control knowledge sources which perform manipulations of the contents of the processor agendas, including such operations as obviation and retraction. See Nirenburg, Nyberg and Defrise, 1989 for a sketch of the text plan controller in our generation system.</Paragraph>
    </Section>
  </Section>
  <Section position="7" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="metho">
    <SectionTitle>
5 From Meaning Representations to Plans.
</SectionTitle>
    <Paragraph position="0"> In this section we show how decisions concerning the treatment of agenda pointers are reflected in the text plan and how decisions about realization of attitudinals are made. We will illustrate the treatment of attitudinals by showing the TMRs and their corresponding TPs for a set of examples. The treatment of attitudinals will be illustrated by listing the attitude-related text plauning rules (a much more comprehensive list of text planning rules is included in Defrise and Nirenburg, 1989). In this fashion we will be able to illustrateboth knowledge representation languages and the planning rule language.</Paragraph>
    <Section position="1" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="sub_section">
      <SectionTitle>
5.1 Planning the Realization of Agenda Pointers.
</SectionTitle>
      <Paragraph position="0"> Consider (14) -- (16) as the desired target for generation.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="1"> (14) I will definitely be back by 10.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="2"> (15) I will be back by 10.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="3"> (16) I promise to be back by 10.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="4"> The corresponding set of (somewhat simplified) TAMERLAN structures is in (17) and (18), since the structures for (15) and (16) will be identical -- indeed, the sentences are synonymous and differ only in what is known as register characteristics, in this case, the level of formality. Taking the above sets as input, the text planner will produce the text plans in (19) -- (21). The differences between the realizations of the input (18) as either (15) or</Paragraph>
    </Section>
    <Section position="2" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="sub_section">
      <SectionTitle>
5.2 Text Planning Rules for Attitudes.
</SectionTitle>
      <Paragraph position="0"> Text planning rules in DIOGF.NES deal with a variety of phenomena. Some are devoted to text structure proper-the number and order of sentences and clauses to express the meanings of input; clause dependency structures, etc.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="1"> Others deal with treatment of reference --- pronominalization, ellipsis, etc. Still others take care of lexical selection, determine tense and mood features of the target text, etc. A set of text planning rules devoted to realization of producer attitudes is presented in Figure 2.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="2">  Rule A1 deals with an attitude of the evaluative type; rules A2 through A4 with attitudes of the epistemic type.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="3"> In the rules, the if clauses check the values in TMR and, depending onthe match, either add features to TP or add a lexical realization for the attitudinal meaning (as in Rule A4).</Paragraph>
    </Section>
  </Section>
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