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<Paper uid="C94-2142">
  <Title>F()C, I )N &amp;quot;()NI_X&amp;quot; ANI) &amp;quot;N()T&amp;quot;</Title>
  <Section position="3" start_page="0" end_page="882" type="metho">
    <SectionTitle>
Pll.O Pl&amp;quot;,ll.ri'Y '\['H\['\]()I\[Y.
3 Quantlfica ran, Presupposi-
</SectionTitle>
    <Paragraph position="0"> tion, Abstraction and Focus W(t (;x\])(;cl; to inl;(wpret rcla,tJve (l~u,qes (un(:onlroversbdly) a,,(I phra,ses with f'ocu,&lt;~,sed (:onstituonts (more co:nt rov(',rsia,lly) a,s a, bstra,ctions over the in1;erprel;a,tions o\[' simple senl,(;n(:es. \]n ord(',r to cot&gt; struct intc'rl)rotations or the ldn(Is of ol)je(t,~ wo ~{ire int(;resl,(xl \]ll~ then, we l\]a,v(~ l,o sl;a, rl; I)y looking; a,~ sire pie sen fence's. The analyses l)l:ese:l:ll;ed in this paper sta,rl; \[rom th(; \['ollowing obs(wvath)ns, most of whMi a,re \[;-t,irly orthodox: Indefinite N1)s shouhl t)e viewed a,s a, way o1&amp;quot; introdu('ing itoms (or prefc&gt;d)ly sets o1' items) inl, o t Ne disco,, rse. U niv('.rsa Ily (1&amp;quot; a,ntifi(;d Nl)s sa,y theft a,Jl it(.ms o\[ the Sl)(~('ifh;(l type sa, Lis\[~y soul(; I)rOl)(wty.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="1"> VPs should be viewed a,s a wa,y of introduc iug ove.ts or possibly sets of (;vents into tim (I isco. rse.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="2"> If you construct i,~t(~ri)r(;l~tions by i)ara,i)hrasil:lg N\], s(,ntenco, s Lnto a, \[ornia,\[ hu~ gun,g(, which extell(I,q i)redicat;(, c~dculu,~, you haw~ to r(~aliso tha,t the s(:OD(; o1' qua, ntifi(~rs iN you r para, i)h rases may not l)e (h'l,(;rmi.cd by shnl)l(; stru(;tu:ral prop(+rt;ies o\[' the sol, r(:(; text.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="3"> \])efinite N1)s and other i)resuppositio.a,1 con structions pl~w.c (:onstra, ints on the discourso, so tlitLt a. s(mtelice conta,iHing the 1)hrtuse the  man will I)e unh,torpretable i:N ('ontexts not conta,iNing a. imi(lu(,, illa.li (a. vorsion or this i)oint h~s I)(,.on maxle \[% a.motig otliers, liar wise ,~ p(,.,:y \[Jgsa\], l(~t,,p \[l~s.l\], (:;,.,),~nendijl~ ,t~ Stokhof \[:1987\]).</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="4"> Thor(; a, rc intera, ctio.s of scope I)etweoll (leF inite NI)s a,n(I other t,yl)oS o\[ exl)ression: i~l I:,'ach ma~, kill,~ t/u: U~,ing hc love,s, the pre supposition:d ('o,struct I, he thing h~ /o~c,~ re(luires I;hc (~xiston(t(~ o\[ a single ta, l:gd, oF air  Fe(:tion per man.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="5"> The' stand~u'd way to deal wil~h tho poto, ntial discropa, ncy botwoen where a, phraso al)pear,~ and the width o\[its scopo is by storinK quaxltiliors ON a, qumltific'r ~tack u.dl the o.tiro sontence ha,s bccn interl)r(',ted , ;t,n(\] 1,h(',n using (',xpJicil, in\[ornlal.ion a,I)out the priority o\[ va, rious quantitiers I,o sort thhlgs out \[Cooper 1983, \/cstr(~ 199\]\]. The work  This sa,ys thai: t, lm relal, ioushil) ,d'mpb' holds I&gt;~, lw('en som('~ I:.a,,sl; in,sl, a, iil. A a, nd I;h(~ i)r,,\]l:.erl,y ~fl I)ein K a, ('erLaiN sort o\[ eveld,. \VhaJ; sort, d' ewulI,? One where a I)i\],:e is stolen ILy somenl~e (or ralher, where a, siuglel, on set o1' bikes is si:olen). Writin K som(qhing lib, ~,11 : (VC 'mcmb~ r( (.', H) -.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="7"> occurrences o\[ /\], sa,.ys 1;ha, i, I'V holds I'~r' I, he cou texl;ua.lly unique individuM /, ~ which sa,l, isfies the i:esl, r'i(:l,i(m l.ha.t, l\] is a w(mlan (is :-/. singletou set, or \V(}I\]\[Cll). \[\[' 1,his resl,rhtioli fails lx) pick out, ~/ unique in(livi(ll:la.I the whole (,Xllressioli is III0~I,11 il\]gless in the c, onlexl,.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="8"> Mosl, of Lhis a.na,ly,qs is rairly orl;\[Iodox. The l;wo ma.in l)oini, s l;hal, might i'(,quir(~ S()ll10 (\]('\['OAI('(' axe llle a, na,lysis of asp(,d, in LerI11B oi&amp;quot;;-I rda,tinrmllip I)el;ween t(,nl l)Ol'a,I ol)j('ct:s a n(I (v,,el\[t; I yllOS, W h ich is discussed ill \[R.a.msay 1,093\], mid l;l,e l;r(41.t, lu(mt, of (le\[inile I'(;\['01'(}\[\]C(} ill L(?I'\[IIR or ('(&gt;nstrn,int, s on mea,ningrulnoss. Neii, h(;r or these is crucial t;o tim renm,ind(,r of i, he pa, i)er, bul if you (hm'l, like t, hem you will have I:() rel)la,(:e them wiI, h som('l, hiuK I&gt;el, t;er, and w)n a,:re unlikely Lu find SOLnC/'lhi~i K whi('h is both I)elter ml(I simpler.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="9"> The a, na,lysi,s a,I)ove wa,s obl;a,ined in a, fra,nleworl,: where qua.nl:ifier SCOl)(t is (hfl;ermillo(t on the I)a,sis o\[ informa,Lion exl)licitly associa,l;(,(I wil, h a.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="10"> \['()rill 0\[' COOPER. STOII,AGF, (\[(.',O0\[)Cl: \],()S;I\]), using al)stra,cl, ioti Ol)era, I;ors of the \[orm AIV~JXI'V, ,\I'I&amp;quot;V.\&amp;quot; 14/&amp;quot; ~I&amp;quot; ,\i.'V~X : IMV whic\]l can he ~q&gt;l&gt;NOd 1\]() ~r fl)rmula, to hind its fr(~(~ varia,t)te:L Within lifts \['ranmwurk, it; is perR~(;I;ly o;+sy lo deal w;I, tl ca,ses like (S) hy allowing t\],~ r01aJ;iw! pronuull Lo ~uld I.h(' exl)rcssion ,\IV,\X W 1.o th(' qua.ui.ilier stor('., a,n nol;a,t, ed i;o speci(y 1,ha,i, t, his expression \]la,s 1\[la.x-iula,\] sc(&gt;pe. If Lhis expression is ~-Lp\[)lied to a, for mula, ,:;(ml;:.l,il\]in g a, \['rn&lt;, occiirl'e\[ic(~ o\[' \],~ \]1; will ret;lll'\]/ a,l/ a,I)sLra,cl;ion with respocI, to X exacl;ly what we wa, rll,. Tile re&lt;luir(;metll, Lh:d; l;h\]s should ha, w', ma,xima.I SCOlm will ensure 1,ha, t, X is l;he la.si; I!l:ee va, riMfle in W.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="11"> But, if we ca,n use I;his mechanism 1;o conslru,::l: 4,1\] aJ)slA'a,(:l~ioll a,s |,}le itil;el;J:,l'(!l, aLiO\]l 0\[' a rela,tive Cla, LlSe~ WC' (;all also use il; Lo ('O\[iSLI:LI(',L ~t, tl a, bsl;l:a.c-Lion ,a~s the inl;ei:l)r(;t, aA, ion o\[' a phra,se con La,hfing a, fo&lt;:ussed iI,enl. The only exi;ra, work we ha,ve I,u i)er\[brnl is I, lla,I; we ha,v(, 1;(, \[iHd som(,wh(,re to iml; l, he int,(,rl)r++l;a.l, init (ff Lh(' foclmsed itx, m Jtsel\['. 'l!(i &lt;1(&gt; this. all I,\[HI,I, is nee(led is aJl (!xi, ra, \['c,:M, ur(! focus ill the descriptions oflinguisl, ic hxmu~. The wilue o\[ focus is lhe \['ucussexl il,eln itsd\[, focus hehaw:s Nko a, GI',~(; Foot FEATURE.~ ill I;\[la~t a,I, I11(),S\[ t)llC (l~~ughl;el: of an il;(:l\[l (:a, ll ha,re a, Not\[ VaCttOUS value for focus, ~m(l Lha.l; i\[' an il, en) do(,s llame exaci, ly ono daughl;or with a, n(m-w1.(wolts vallie for (his fea.ture i,h(;n (,he it(m) will share this vn, IIm with I;\[IM, (la, ughi;er, focus is thus very like l, he sl,a.n.dard I'eat;ure z\]_ash which is us(,d l'()t' (h;alillg with left; ext, ra, i)osil, ion it, is a, fool, \['ea, lwre whose va,luo is s(&gt;mc item which is somel\]ow &amp;quot;'ouL (*i' t&gt;()..</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="12"> ,sii;ion&amp;quot;.</Paragraph>
  </Section>
  <Section position="4" start_page="882" end_page="884" type="metho">
    <SectionTitle>
4 Applications of Focus
</SectionTitle>
    <Paragraph position="0"> Once we ha,w; t;his \]neclm, llism, we ca, n /IHO j |J,o construcl, inbu'l)rei,a,l,i&lt;m,s of'sentences like( ) (6).</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="1"> (lonsider, \['or insL;mco, the exa.nH)le:  where /q is Allcv(~d,(ll) A typc(ll,borrou:) A a,g(!'n.t(H, I,')A ob.jt~cl,(ll, I))(this has I)een ('.x-Ir'ax;ted from tim di,~pla,yed \['ornluh~. to get, it insido Lhe a, va,ilable M&gt;a.ce il, is in \[a, ct l)a, rI, C/~\[' t,h&amp;e form ulay.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="2"> This says Lha, L 1,he rela.ti~mshil) on.l 9 holds l)(;l,w(~en the l&gt;\['~fl)erty o\[' l)ehb'; a, cam a.i\]d ,some oLlmr oh joel. This is Nile ;~s fax ~s il Koes, buL iL isH'l; worth  very much unless we spell out the conditions un der which this rel~tti(mship holds. The tbllowing mea.ning postub~te does just that: VPVQ(o,dy(l', (2) ~ Q.t' A (VP'(@I&amp;quot; -+ P' = P))) In other words, i\[' only(P, Q) holds then t' s~l;is:lies (2 and nothing else (It)ks. In ~he present ('a.se, the first of th(;se consequences lnea.ns that I did indeed  , ~,.,,d ,,si~g (,X,~,'~,'(~4)).~': =_ ,:o,,'(lC). The second eonsequen('e of the MI ) for mdy s~.ys thaJ, there is no other (;~ttegory o\[ item which sat islies the ~bstra.(:tiou tha.t the only thing \] bor-I'owed w;-l,s a, Cai'.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="3"> \[\[ we put the Ibcus somewhere else, we get anot her hlterl)retation:  This s~ws theft only holds between ~ description el'the type of event C where somebody h' borrows something A, ~tnd ~u-, a.bsiraction over situa.tions in which I did something 1o some (-a.r. Then the first consequence of o/.dy sa.ys tha.t what I (lid to this c~u' was 1 l)orrowed it: substituting the descril)tion of the event type tbr the abstra.cted va.ri~l)l(,. I,' produces ((,\A,\ll,\Cevent(C) A tvpe(C', borrow) A I:}.A l)(age'nJ((;, \]))) A A.~\ It(object((:', or ,~i'm, plc, a,nd this i:educes to ACe'venl(C) A type(C, borrow) A a, gcnt(C, J)) k object(C, II), which is wha.t we want. The second sa.ys tha.t I didn't do mtything else to it.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="4"> Much the s~/.ltle will happen with</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="6"> llere we ha.ve a, 2-pla.(e rel;-/.tiol\] /'tOt, wh'lch \]8 ba.cked tip by the following M P: w'vo(,,o~(P, O) -, (~0./' A ~ ~&amp;quot;((,8. l,'))) This sa.ys t hat this Ibrm of negation holds between / ) ~;LI/(I Q if Q does not hold of P, but does hold lbr so:me other entity P'. In the present case, this \[l:le.a.ns tha.t I did do seine.thing; to it (wha.tever &amp;quot;il&amp;quot; is), I)ut what I did wa.s not stea.ling.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="7"> This contrasts with simple :negation, with :no fb(:ussed item, a.s ix,:</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="9"> This shnply says Lh~tt it is uot the c~se tha.t there is a 1)a.st stea.ling event inw~lvh~g me a.nd it. The choice I)etween the two is forced by l, ho presence or ~bsence of&amp;quot; a foeusse(I item.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="10"> As a finaJ exa.mpte, consider a. sentence which (;outa.ins ~ focussed item I)tlt lie oper~or for using it up: (13) A man ate i/ The a.nalysis of this is a.n a.bstraction over Idnds of indivM ua.ls who ate it  seL a,s l;he descril)l;ion (inchl(ting l,\[l('~ s(,nia, iiLic a, ua,l.ysis) of I, he \[()cussed i:llira,s(! ml'U~. This is ,i,st, the ki lid ofol)ject r(;( I Lli re(I \['or a, (Jiscou I;S(; Ol)(H'~C/t(ir ,Sli('.h ;,I,s (tolll;l';-/,si; 01; (4a, i)ora,tiou exa,ci, ly whM/ Sli(-li ()l)0ra,l, or is a,i)t)rol)rial,e (lel)etids oii f;-i,(;LOl','4 ii()l, visible iu (l'l) itsolf, bill, wha,1;ev(~r ii, i,:; ii; will require a, l)~ir of ii,i'~lllil(',iil,'40\[ i, his kind.</Paragraph>
  </Section>
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